Skeletal Integrity and Mobility

Skeletal integrity and mobility form the foundation of poultry health, welfare, and productivity. Healthy bones provide structural support for growth, posture, movement, and weight-bearing, while efficient locomotion enables birds to access feed, water, nesting areas, perches, and other environmental resources throughout life. Because the skeletal system develops rapidly during early growth and continues adapting throughout production, factors that influence bone strength also affect mobility, welfare outcomes, and production efficiency.

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Modern poultry production has substantially improved growth rates, feed conversion, and productivity through advances in genetics, nutrition, management, and housing. These achievements have also increased scientific interest in maintaining skeletal integrity, particularly in rapidly growing broiler chickens and high-producing laying hens. Research consistently shows that skeletal health and locomotion are closely interconnected rather than separate biological systems. Birds with stronger bones generally demonstrate better movement, while compromised skeletal integrity often contributes to gait abnormalities, reduced activity, and diminished welfare (Knowles et al., 2008; Rath & Durairaj, 2021).

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Although leg disorders receive considerable attention because of their visible effects on walking ability, scientific evidence indicates that mobility reflects the combined influence of genetics, skeletal development, muscle growth, body conformation, environmental conditions, infectious disease, nutrition, and management practices. Rather than resulting from a single cause, impaired locomotion usually develops through interactions among multiple biological and environmental factors that influence bone quality, joint function, and mechanical loading throughout the bird's life (Kierończyk et al., 2017; Szafraniec et al., 2022).

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Evidence from broilers, laying hens, and turkeys demonstrates that skeletal integrity influences far more than locomotion alone. Strong bones support normal growth, reduce susceptibility to fractures and deformities, promote efficient movement, and contribute to overall welfare. Conversely, weakened skeletal structures may alter posture, gait, and behavior while limiting access to essential resources, particularly in commercial production environments where birds experience rapid growth or intensive egg production (Knowles et al., 2008; Oviedo-Rondón et al., 2017).

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For poultry producers, veterinarians, researchers, and students, understanding skeletal integrity and mobility requires recognizing the interaction between anatomy, physiology, genetics, environment, and animal welfare. Current veterinary research increasingly views bone health as an integrated component of whole-animal health rather than an isolated orthopedic concern. Emerging areas such as genomics, microbiome research, precision livestock monitoring, and automated gait assessment continue expanding knowledge of how skeletal development influences lifelong mobility and production outcomes (Lu et al., 2025; Kapell et al., 2025).

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This educational resource serves as the central hub for skeletal integrity and mobility within the Poultry Health Overview and introduces the major concepts explored in greater depth throughout the related educational resources.

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What This Major Pillar Covers

 

This major pillar provides an evidence-based overview of skeletal integrity and mobility in poultry, emphasizing the biological processes that support normal bone development and efficient locomotion across different production systems.

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Topics include:

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• The structure and function of the avian skeletal system.

• Bone growth and skeletal development from hatch through maturity.

• Factors influencing bone strength and structural integrity.

• The relationship between skeletal development and locomotion.

• Common contributors to leg weakness and gait abnormalities.

• The interaction between genetics, growth rate, nutrition, housing, and management.

• Welfare implications associated with impaired mobility.

• Emerging research directions involving genetics, microbiome science, and precision monitoring technologies.

 

Rather than focusing on individual diseases or treatments, this pillar introduces the scientific principles that explain how skeletal integrity supports mobility and how both influence poultry health throughout the production cycle.

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Readers seeking detailed discussions of specific topics can explore the dedicated minor pillars:

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• Skeletal Health in Poultry

• Mobility and Leg Health

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Why This Area Matters

 

Skeletal integrity has become one of the most important research priorities in modern poultry production because skeletal tissues must continually adapt to changing mechanical demands throughout life. In rapidly growing broiler chickens, muscle mass often increases faster than the skeleton can fully mature, creating additional biomechanical stress on developing bones and joints. In laying hens, prolonged egg production places unique demands on calcium metabolism and skeletal maintenance, while housing systems influence opportunities for exercise and bone remodeling (Paxton et al., 2014; Campbell, 2020).

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Research consistently identifies locomotion as both a health indicator and an animal welfare measure. Birds experiencing impaired gait often show reduced movement, altered posture, decreased access to feed and water, and changes in normal behavior. Large field studies demonstrate that poor locomotion remains common in commercial broiler production, highlighting the importance of skeletal health as a welfare concern alongside its effects on productivity (Knowles et al., 2008; Granquist et al., 2019).

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Scientific evidence also demonstrates that skeletal integrity is influenced by multiple interacting factors rather than any single determinant. Genetics establishes much of the bird's developmental potential, while nutrition supplies essential building blocks for bone formation. Housing conditions, flooring characteristics, stocking density, thermal environment, physical activity, and infectious disease further influence skeletal development and locomotor performance throughout life (Khan et al., 2023; Carvalho et al., 2025).

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Because skeletal integrity reflects the combined effects of growth, metabolism, environment, and management, it provides valuable insight into overall poultry health. Maintaining healthy bones contributes not only to movement but also to resilience, welfare, and long-term production sustainability.

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How This Major Pillar Relates to Poultry Health Overview

 

This page forms part of the Poultry Health Overview and serves as the central educational hub for skeletal integrity and mobility.

The poultry musculoskeletal system does not function independently. Instead, it interacts continuously with multiple body systems that collectively influence growth, health, and performance.

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For example:

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• Nutrient digestion and absorption influence the availability of minerals and nutrients required for bone formation.

• Immune function affects inflammatory processes associated with infectious skeletal diseases.

• Endocrine regulation helps coordinate growth, mineral metabolism, and bone remodeling.

• Cardiovascular function supports delivery of oxygen and nutrients to developing skeletal tissues.

• Muscle development influences mechanical loading that stimulates normal bone adaptation.

• Environmental conditions affect both physical activity and structural stress on the skeleton.

 

Current research also highlights growing interest in the gut–bone axis, where gastrointestinal health and microbial communities may influence bone metabolism through immune regulation and nutrient utilization. Although mechanistic evidence continues to expand, researchers note that intervention studies remain relatively limited, making this an active area of investigation rather than an established component of poultry management (Sharma et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2025).

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Understanding skeletal integrity therefore contributes to a broader understanding of poultry biology, illustrating how multiple physiological systems work together to support healthy growth and efficient movement.

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Key Concepts Within This Pillar

 

Several recurring scientific themes explain how skeletal integrity and mobility are maintained throughout the poultry life cycle.

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Skeletal development is a dynamic process

 

Bone continuously develops, remodels, and adapts to changing mechanical demands. Growth, mineralization, and structural remodeling occur throughout development, allowing bones to respond to body weight, movement, and environmental conditions (Rath & Durairaj, 2021).

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Mobility reflects whole-body health

 

Walking ability depends on more than healthy bones alone. Normal locomotion requires coordinated interactions among bones, joints, muscles, tendons, nerves, and balance mechanisms. Consequently, gait changes often indicate broader physiological or structural challenges rather than isolated orthopedic abnormalities (Caplen et al., 2012).

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Growth rate influences skeletal loading

 

Modern commercial poultry genetics have greatly improved growth efficiency. Research shows that rapid body mass accumulation can increase biomechanical loading on developing bones, particularly when skeletal maturation does not fully keep pace with muscle growth (Paxton et al., 2014; Knowles et al., 2008).

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Skeletal disorders are multifactorial

 

Scientific reviews consistently conclude that skeletal disorders rarely arise from a single cause. Instead, genetics, nutrition, infection, housing, environmental conditions, management practices, and growth patterns interact to influence bone quality and mobility (Kierończyk et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2023).

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Welfare and locomotion are closely connected

 

Walking ability is widely recognized as an important indicator of poultry welfare. Reduced mobility influences behavior, access to resources, and overall quality of life, making locomotion a valuable outcome measure in both research and commercial production (Knowles et al., 2008; Tahamtani et al., 2020).

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New technologies are expanding research

 

Recent advances include automated gait scoring, wearable activity sensors, pressure-sensitive walkways, computer vision, genomic analyses, and microbiome research. These technologies continue improving understanding of skeletal development and mobility while supporting more objective assessment of locomotion across poultry populations (Aydin, 2017; Nasiri et al., 2022; Kapell et al., 2025).

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Together, these concepts establish the scientific framework for understanding why skeletal integrity remains one of the most important determinants of poultry mobility, welfare, and lifelong health.

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Skeletal Health in Poultry

 

Skeletal health refers to the development, strength, structure, and functional integrity of bones throughout a bird's life. In poultry, the skeleton serves as more than a framework for supporting body weight. Bones protect vital organs, provide attachment sites for muscles, store essential minerals, and enable movement by working together with joints, tendons, and muscles. Because poultry undergo rapid growth or sustained egg production depending on the production system, skeletal tissues remain under continuous physiological demand from hatch through maturity.

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Research consistently identifies skeletal integrity as a major determinant of poultry welfare, productivity, and longevity. Healthy bones are better able to withstand mechanical loading during standing, walking, and other normal behaviors, whereas compromised skeletal development increases the likelihood of deformities, fractures, gait abnormalities, and reduced mobility. Importantly, skeletal integrity is not determined by a single biological process but reflects the combined influence of genetics, growth rate, nutrition, endocrine regulation, environmental conditions, infectious disease, and physical activity throughout development (Rath & Durairaj, 2021; Rath et al., 2000).

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Bone Development Throughout Life

 

Bone development begins during embryonic growth and continues rapidly after hatching. During this period, skeletal tissues undergo mineralization, remodeling, and structural adaptation as body weight increases. Normal bone formation requires coordinated activity between cells responsible for producing new bone and those involved in remodeling existing tissue. This continuous process allows the skeleton to adapt to changing mechanical forces as birds grow.

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In commercial broilers, skeletal development occurs alongside exceptionally rapid muscle growth. Modern genetic selection has substantially increased growth efficiency, enabling birds to reach market weight within a relatively short period. While this has improved production efficiency, scientific evidence indicates that muscle development can exceed the pace of skeletal maturation, increasing biomechanical loading on developing bones and joints (Paxton et al., 2014; Knowles et al., 2008). Rather than indicating abnormal development in every bird, this imbalance illustrates why skeletal tissues remain particularly vulnerable during periods of rapid growth.

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Laying hens experience different skeletal demands. Instead of supporting rapid body weight gain, their skeleton must continuously participate in mineral metabolism associated with eggshell formation, relying heavily on specialized medullary bone as a labile calcium reservoir while maintaining structural cortical and trabecular bone. Bone remodeling therefore continues throughout the laying cycle, and long-term structural integrity becomes increasingly important as production progresses (Campbell, 2020; De Koning et al., 2020).

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Factors That Influence Bone Strength

 

Bone strength depends on both bone quantity and bone quality. Strong bones possess adequate mineralization, appropriate geometry, favorable microarchitecture, and sufficient resistance to mechanical stress. Research demonstrates that multiple interacting factors determine these characteristics rather than any single nutritional or genetic influence.

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Genetics plays a central role in skeletal development. Numerous studies have identified genetic regions associated with bone density, bone composition, skeletal stability, gait score, and susceptibility to leg disorders. Modern breeding programs increasingly recognize skeletal traits as economically and biologically important alongside traditional production characteristics (Guo et al., 2017; Jansen et al., 2021; Kapell et al., 2025).

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Nutrition provides the nutrients necessary for skeletal growth and mineralization. Scientific literature consistently identifies bone formation as dependent on adequate nutrient availability throughout development. Beyond traditional mineral metabolism, emerging evidence suggests interactions between gastrointestinal health, immune regulation, and bone physiology through the proposed gut–bone axis, although many mechanistic findings still require further validation in intervention studies (Fleming, 2008; Sharma et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2025).

 

Mechanical loading also contributes to skeletal adaptation. Bone tissue responds to physical forces generated during movement and weight-bearing, allowing structural remodeling throughout life. Consequently, opportunities for normal locomotion and activity influence bone characteristics, particularly in developing birds. Studies examining exercise opportunities during rearing demonstrate that activity influences adult bone characteristics, highlighting the importance of mechanical stimulation during skeletal development (Casey-Trott et al., 2017).

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Skeletal Disorders in Poultry

 

The scientific literature describes numerous skeletal disorders affecting poultry, although these conditions vary considerably in cause, anatomical location, and severity. Rather than representing a single disease category, skeletal disorders encompass developmental abnormalities, metabolic conditions, infectious diseases, traumatic injuries, and structural deformities that influence bone integrity and locomotion.

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Reviews consistently conclude that leg disorders arise through multifactorial interactions involving genetics, nutrition, infection, growth patterns, management practices, and environmental conditions (Kierończyk et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2023). Infectious skeletal diseases such as bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) have attracted considerable research attention because they represent an important cause of lameness in commercial broilers. Investigations continue examining how bacterial colonization, vascular changes, immune responses, and skeletal microdamage interact during disease development (Choppa & Kim, 2023; Greene et al., 2024).

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Developmental skeletal disorders also remain an important focus of veterinary research. Historical and contemporary reviews document conditions affecting growth plates, long bones, joints, and bone mineralization—including tibial dyschondroplasia, valgus-varus spinal or limb deformities, and spondylolisthesis—illustrating that skeletal integrity depends on successful coordination of growth, remodeling, and mineral metabolism rather than bone size alone  (Thorp, 1994; Rath & Durairaj, 2021).

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In laying hens, researchers have increasingly examined keel bone damage—encompassing both traumatic fractures from environmental impacts and structural deviations driven by progressive osteoporosis—because these conditions directly influence welfare during prolonged egg production. Recent systematic reviews indicate that housing systems offering greater freedom of movement may also increase exposure to collisions and fractures, demonstrating the complex balance between behavioral opportunities and skeletal safety (Szmek et al., 2025; Campbell, 2020).

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Genetics and Future Directions

 

Modern poultry genetics continues to evolve beyond maximizing growth and production efficiency alone. Increasing evidence demonstrates that skeletal characteristics are measurable, heritable traits that can be incorporated into breeding programs without necessarily compromising productive performance. Genome-wide association studies and transcriptomic investigations have identified numerous candidate genes involved in bone density, bone strength, mineral metabolism, skeletal stability, and leg health, providing new opportunities to better understand the biological pathways underlying skeletal integrity (Guo et al., 2017; Steinerova et al., 2023; Zhuang et al., 2025).

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At the same time, research increasingly integrates genomics with biomechanics, imaging technologies, and precision livestock monitoring to evaluate skeletal health more objectively. Bone mineral density assessments, mechanical testing, advanced imaging, and automated phenotyping continue improving researchers' ability to study skeletal development while supporting future breeding strategies aimed at balancing productivity with improved structural health (Hester et al., 2004; Ramser et al., 2024).

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These advances reinforce an important conclusion throughout the veterinary literature: skeletal health is not an isolated characteristic but a whole-animal trait that reflects interactions among genetics, physiology, nutrition, environment, and management. Understanding these relationships provides the foundation for interpreting locomotion, welfare, and musculoskeletal function across all poultry production systems.

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Mobility and Leg Health

 

Mobility describes a bird's ability to stand, balance, walk, and move efficiently throughout its environment. Healthy locomotion allows poultry to access feed, water, nest boxes, perches, resting areas, and other resources that support normal biological functions. Because movement depends on the coordinated interaction of the skeleton, muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and sensory systems, changes in mobility often reflect broader alterations in musculoskeletal health rather than problems affecting a single tissue or organ.

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Among modern poultry production challenges, impaired mobility remains one of the most extensively studied welfare concerns. Research consistently demonstrates that locomotor abnormalities are common in commercial poultry populations, particularly fast-growing broiler chickens, where rapid increases in body weight place substantial mechanical demands on developing skeletal structures. Large-scale field studies have reported that more than one-quarter of commercial broilers exhibit reduced walking ability by approximately 40 days of age, with a smaller proportion experiencing severe mobility impairment (Knowles et al., 2008). These findings have established locomotion as a key indicator of musculoskeletal health and animal welfare across commercial production systems.

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How Poultry Locomotion Is Evaluated

 

Veterinary researchers use several complementary methods to evaluate mobility in poultry. The most widely adopted approach is gait scoring, which provides a standardized assessment of walking ability based on posture, stride quality, balance, and coordination. Although gait scoring relies on trained observers, it remains a practical method for assessing locomotion in both research and commercial settings because it provides a consistent framework for comparing walking performance among birds and flocks (Knowles et al., 2008; Kulbacki, 2026).

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Advances in technology have expanded the tools available for mobility assessment. Pressure-sensitive walkways measure weight distribution and stride characteristics, allowing researchers to quantify subtle gait abnormalities that may not be apparent during visual observation. Motion capture systems, photogrammetry, and biomechanical analyses further improve objective evaluation of locomotion by measuring limb movement, stance width, walking speed, and balance during gait (Caplen et al., 2012; Mendes et al., 2016).

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More recently, precision livestock technologies have introduced automated approaches to mobility monitoring. Accelerometers, computer vision systems, artificial intelligence, and pose-estimation algorithms can continuously evaluate activity patterns and walking behavior without requiring constant human observation. These technologies offer promising opportunities for earlier detection of locomotor changes, although researchers emphasize that further validation across diverse production systems is still needed before widespread implementation (Aydin, 2017; Nasiri et al., 2022; Pearce et al., 2023).

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Why Leg Health Matters

 

Leg health directly influences a bird's ability to perform normal daily activities. Poultry experiencing impaired locomotion often spend less time walking, display altered posture, and show reduced access to feed and water. As mobility declines, these behavioral changes may affect growth, production efficiency, and overall welfare, particularly in commercial environments where birds must travel repeatedly between essential resources (Granquist et al., 2019; Toscano et al., 2013).

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Research also demonstrates that locomotion serves as a useful indicator of broader musculoskeletal function. Rather than reflecting only bone strength, walking ability integrates skeletal integrity, joint stability, muscle function, body conformation, neurological coordination, and balance. Consequently, changes in gait often provide valuable insight into overall structural health.

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Biomechanical studies have shown that birds with impaired locomotion adopt compensatory movement patterns that reduce stress on affected limbs. These adaptations include slower walking speed, increased double-support time, wider stance, and altered posture, reflecting attempts to maintain stability despite underlying skeletal or musculoskeletal challenges (Caplen et al., 2012). Such findings demonstrate that locomotion represents a dynamic interaction between anatomy and biomechanics rather than simply the presence or absence of disease.

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Factors That Influence Mobility

 

Scientific evidence consistently shows that poultry mobility is influenced by multiple interacting biological and environmental factors.

Growth rate and body conformation remain among the strongest contributors. Modern broiler chickens have been selectively bred for rapid muscle deposition and efficient feed conversion. Although these characteristics improve production efficiency, rapid increases in body mass can increase mechanical loading on developing limbs before skeletal maturation is fully complete. Research examining pelvic limb anatomy and biomechanics demonstrates that increased breast muscle mass alters the bird's center of gravity and changes how forces are distributed during walking, contributing to compensatory gait adaptations (Paxton et al., 2014; Knowles et al., 2008).

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Housing and environmental conditions also influence locomotor performance. Flooring materials, litter quality, stocking density, enrichment opportunities, and thermal conditions all affect how birds move and how mechanical forces are transmitted through the limbs. Studies have demonstrated that bedding characteristics can influence bone quality and leg health, while heat stress may reduce structural integrity despite changes in bone dimensions. Likewise, elevated platforms and environmental enrichment have shown benefits under some conditions, although their effects may differ depending on environmental stressors such as high ambient temperature (Khan et al., 2023; Carvalho et al., 2025).

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Infectious and non-infectious disorders further contribute to mobility impairment. Reviews consistently conclude that poultry leg disorders arise through complex interactions involving skeletal development, microbial pathogens, inflammation, metabolic processes, and management factors rather than a single underlying cause (Kierończyk et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2023). Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis, for example, has emerged as a major research focus because it represents an important infectious cause of lameness in broiler chickens and illustrates how skeletal health and immune function intersect (Choppa & Kim, 2023).

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Mobility Across Poultry Species and Production Systems

 

Although broiler chickens account for much of the locomotion research, mobility is an important consideration across multiple poultry species and production systems.

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In broilers, locomotor performance is closely associated with growth rate, skeletal development, and welfare. Research demonstrates that gait score is a heritable characteristic, creating opportunities to improve walking ability through selective breeding alongside traditional production traits (Kapell et al., 2025).

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In turkeys, comparative studies reveal differences in gait characteristics, bone mineral density, and skeletal geometry among strains. Birds with stronger bone characteristics generally demonstrate more efficient locomotion, reinforcing the close relationship between skeletal integrity and walking performance (Oviedo-Rondón et al., 2017; Kremer et al., 2018).

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For laying hens, mobility remains closely connected with housing design and skeletal health. Non-cage systems often encourage greater movement and expression of natural behaviors, but they may also increase exposure to high-impact collisions and falls during flight or perching, leading to elevated rates of keel bone fractures and deformities. Recent systematic reviews highlight the need to balance behavioral opportunities with structural safety when evaluating housing systems, illustrating that mobility and welfare are influenced by multiple interacting environmental factors rather than housing type alone (Campbell, 2020; Szmek et al., 2025).

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Emerging Research on Poultry Mobility

 

Mobility research continues to evolve beyond traditional gait scoring toward a more comprehensive understanding of musculoskeletal function. Current investigations integrate biomechanics, genetics, precision livestock farming, imaging technologies, microbiology, and artificial intelligence to better understand why locomotor disorders develop and how they can be measured objectively.

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One rapidly expanding field involves the genetic architecture of locomotion, where genome-wide analyses have identified genes associated with gait score, bone quality, and skeletal stability. These findings support breeding strategies that incorporate leg health alongside productivity traits rather than viewing them as competing objectives (Kapell et al., 2025; Jansen et al., 2021).

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Another area of growing interest is continuous mobility monitoring. Sensor-based technologies, computer vision, and machine learning offer the potential to identify subtle locomotor changes before severe gait impairment becomes apparent. However, current evidence indicates that relationships between automated measurements and clinically recognizable lameness remain complex, and additional validation across commercial environments is still required before these technologies become routine assessment tools (Pearce et al., 2023; Hertem et al., 2018).

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Overall, the scientific literature consistently demonstrates that mobility represents one of the clearest outward expressions of skeletal integrity in poultry. Efficient locomotion depends on healthy bone development, appropriate musculoskeletal adaptation, favorable environmental conditions, and coordinated physiological function. As research advances, mobility continues to serve as a valuable indicator linking skeletal biology, animal welfare, production performance, and emerging precision livestock technologies.

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Current Research Themes

 

Research on poultry skeletal integrity and mobility has expanded considerably over the past two decades, reflecting growing recognition that musculoskeletal health influences animal welfare, productivity, genetics, and long-term sustainability. Contemporary investigations increasingly combine traditional veterinary disciplines with genomics, biomechanics, microbiology, engineering, and artificial intelligence to better understand how skeletal development and locomotion interact throughout a bird's life.

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Although many studies focus on broiler chickens because of their rapid growth rates, similar questions are being explored in laying hens, turkeys, ducks, and other poultry species. Across these systems, the scientific literature consistently supports a multifactorial view of skeletal health, recognizing that genetics, environment, nutrition, infectious disease, and management interact rather than acting independently.

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Understanding the Genetics of Skeletal Integrity

 

One of the most active research areas involves identifying the genetic factors that influence bone strength, skeletal stability, and walking ability. Genome-wide association studies, quantitative trait locus analyses, and transcriptomic investigations have identified numerous genes associated with bone mineralization, skeletal architecture, gait score, keel bone integrity, and susceptibility to leg disorders.

Importantly, recent studies indicate that locomotion and skeletal integrity are heritable characteristics rather than unavoidable consequences of modern production. This finding has encouraged breeding programs to incorporate leg health alongside traditional production traits, supporting the possibility of improving structural soundness without sacrificing productivity when multiple traits are considered together (Kapell et al., 2025; Guo et al., 2017; Jansen et al., 2021).

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Research also continues examining genes involved in bone metabolism, mineral regulation, and skeletal remodeling to better understand why some birds demonstrate greater structural resilience than others under similar production conditions (De Koning et al., 2020; Steinerova et al., 2023).

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The Gut–Bone Axis

 

Another rapidly developing area involves interactions between gastrointestinal health and skeletal physiology. Scientists increasingly recognize that the digestive system contributes to much more than nutrient absorption alone. Immune signaling, microbial metabolites, and intestinal health may influence bone remodeling and mineral metabolism through mechanisms collectively described as the gut–bone axis.

Mechanistic studies provide growing evidence that intestinal microbes and immune pathways communicate with skeletal tissues, creating new opportunities to understand how systemic physiology influences bone health. Reviews describe this field as conceptually strong and biologically plausible, yet intervention evidence remains relatively limited.

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For example, some studies have reported improvements in bone measurements following specific dietary interventions, while corresponding improvements in gait or locomotion have been less consistent. As a result, researchers continue emphasizing the need for larger randomized controlled trials before firm conclusions can be drawn regarding practical applications (Sharma et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., 2020).

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Precision Livestock Monitoring

 

Digital technologies are transforming how poultry mobility is measured. Traditional gait scoring remains widely used because of its practicality, but researchers increasingly seek objective, continuous methods capable of detecting subtle locomotor changes earlier than visual observation alone.

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Current investigations include:

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• Computer vision systems that automatically analyze walking behavior.

• Artificial intelligence models capable of recognizing gait abnormalities.

• Wearable activity sensors and accelerometers.

• Pressure-sensitive walkways that quantify stride characteristics.

• Imaging technologies that evaluate bone quality non-invasively.

 

These tools have demonstrated considerable promise under experimental conditions. However, researchers continue validating their accuracy across commercial production systems because relationships between automated measurements and clinically meaningful lameness remain complex rather than perfectly linear (Aydin, 2017; Pearce et al., 2023; Nasiri et al., 2022; Hertem et al., 2018).

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Housing, Environment, and Welfare

 

Environmental research continues examining how housing systems influence skeletal development and mobility. Flooring characteristics, litter quality, environmental enrichment, stocking density, heat stress, and opportunities for exercise all alter the mechanical forces acting on bones and joints.

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Recent studies demonstrate that housing design often involves balancing multiple welfare outcomes. For example, enriched or aviary housing systems may encourage more natural movement while also increasing exposure to collisions or fractures in laying hens. Similarly, environmental enrichments that improve locomotion under one set of conditions may be less effective under heat stress or other environmental challenges (Carvalho et al., 2025; Szmek et al., 2025; Khan et al., 2023).

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These findings reinforce a broader conclusion throughout the literature: skeletal integrity and mobility should be viewed as outcomes of the entire production environment rather than isolated biological traits.

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Remaining Knowledge Gaps

 

Despite substantial scientific progress, several important questions remain.

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Current literature indicates that:

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• Mechanistic understanding frequently exceeds evidence from intervention studies.

• The gut–bone axis remains an active area of investigation requiring additional clinical validation.

• Automated monitoring technologies continue to improve but require broader validation under commercial conditions.

• Long-term studies evaluating environmental interventions remain comparatively limited.

• Continued integration of genetics, welfare science, and precision livestock technologies represents an important future direction.

 

Overall, the strongest evidence supports a comprehensive approach to understanding skeletal integrity—one that recognizes interactions among genetics, physiology, environment, management, and welfare rather than searching for a single explanation for locomotor disorders.

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Frequently Asked Questions

 

What does skeletal integrity mean in poultry?

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Skeletal integrity refers to the overall strength, structure, stability, and functional health of the bones that support normal posture, growth, and movement. It encompasses bone development, mineralization, remodeling, and the ability of the skeleton to withstand normal mechanical forces throughout a bird's life (Rath & Durairaj, 2021).

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Why is mobility important for poultry welfare?

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Mobility enables birds to reach feed, water, resting areas, nesting sites, and environmental enrichments while expressing normal behaviors. Research consistently identifies walking ability as an important indicator of welfare because reduced mobility is associated with altered behavior, decreased activity, and reduced access to essential resources (Knowles et al., 2008; Granquist et al., 2019).

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Are leg disorders caused by only one factor?

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No. Scientific reviews consistently conclude that poultry leg disorders have a multifactorial origin. Genetics, growth rate, skeletal development, nutrition, infectious disease, housing, environmental conditions, and management practices all interact to influence bone health and locomotion (Kierończyk et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2023).

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Why are broiler chickens studied so frequently?

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Broiler chickens grow rapidly and therefore place substantial mechanical demands on developing bones and joints during a relatively short production period. This makes broilers an important model for studying the relationships among growth, skeletal development, biomechanics, and locomotion (Paxton et al., 2014; Knowles et al., 2008).

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How do scientists evaluate poultry mobility?

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Researchers commonly use gait scoring, biomechanical analysis, pressure-sensitive walkways, imaging technologies, accelerometers, computer vision, and artificial intelligence to evaluate locomotion. These approaches range from traditional observational methods to automated continuous monitoring systems, with newer technologies still undergoing validation across commercial settings (Caplen et al., 2012; Aydin, 2017; Pearce et al., 2023).

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Does stronger bones always mean better mobility?

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Bone strength is an important contributor to locomotion, but mobility depends on the coordinated function of the entire musculoskeletal system. Muscles, joints, tendons, nerves, body conformation, balance, environmental conditions, and overall health all influence how birds move. For this reason, locomotion is considered a whole-animal outcome rather than a direct measure of bone quality alone.

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Explore Related Topics

 

Continue exploring the Poultry Health Overview through these evidence-based educational resources:

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Poultry Health Overview

Skeletal Health in Poultry

Mobility and Leg Health