Musculoskeletal Soundness & Mobility

Musculoskeletal soundness in livestock refers to the structural integrity and functional performance of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and associated tissues that allow animals to stand, walk, bear weight, and perform normal activities throughout life. Healthy musculoskeletal systems support growth, reproduction, feed acquisition, social behavior, and productive performance while contributing to animal welfare across diverse livestock production systems. When mobility declines, the effects often extend beyond locomotion alone, influencing productivity, longevity, reproductive efficiency, and overall health.

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Although musculoskeletal disorders occur across all livestock species, their causes and clinical presentation vary according to anatomy, genetics, age, housing, nutrition, management, and production goals. Dairy cattle commonly experience lameness linked to hoof disorders and housing conditions, while structural soundness remains an important consideration for beef cattle longevity and performance. In swine, locomotor problems affect sow welfare and productivity, while rapidly growing poultry are susceptible to leg disorders linked to skeletal development. Sheep and goats also experience mobility challenges linked to hoof health, pregnancy, breed characteristics, and environmental management. Despite these species differences, mobility remains an important indicator of both animal welfare and production efficiency.

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Recent veterinary research increasingly emphasizes that musculoskeletal soundness should be evaluated as a multidimensional concept rather than simply the absence of lameness. Modern assessments consider gait characteristics, posture, weight-bearing, activity patterns, structural conformation, and behavioral changes alongside traditional locomotion scoring. Advances in computer vision, wearable sensors, accelerometers, and artificial intelligence are also improving objective mobility assessment, although visual scoring remains the most widely used field method across livestock industries (Wessels et al., 2025; Nejati et al., 2022).

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As part of the CountryVetMom Veterinary Knowledge System, this major pillar introduces the scientific foundations of musculoskeletal soundness in livestock and provides context for more detailed topics covered within the Livestock Health system.

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For an overview of the entire system, visit the Livestock Health Overview.

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What This Major Pillar Covers

 

This major pillar provides an evidence-based overview of musculoskeletal soundness and mobility across major livestock species. Rather than focusing on individual diseases or clinical management, it explains the biological and production principles that influence healthy movement throughout an animal's lifespan.

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Major topics include:

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• skeletal growth and structural integrity

• muscle development and functional performance

• locomotion and gait

• mobility assessment

• lameness as a welfare and production concern

• species differences among cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, and goats

• emerging technologies for objective mobility evaluation

• current directions in musculoskeletal research

 

Together, these topics demonstrate how musculoskeletal health supports efficient production while also serving as an important indicator of animal welfare.

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Why This Area Matters

 

Musculoskeletal soundness influences nearly every aspect of livestock production because movement underlies feeding, drinking, breeding, maternal behavior, social interactions, and access to environmental resources. Animals with reduced mobility often show altered behavior long before severe locomotor impairment becomes apparent, making musculoskeletal health an important part of routine welfare assessment.

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Research consistently shows that mobility problems occur across all major livestock species, although prevalence varies considerably by production system, housing, scoring methodology, and species. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis estimated a median lameness prevalence of nearly one-third of dairy cows in Northwest Europe, illustrating that locomotor disorders remain one of the most significant welfare challenges in modern dairy production (Wessels et al., 2025). Similar concerns have been reported in poultry, sheep, goats, and swine, where locomotor abnormalities are associated with reduced welfare indicators and production efficiency (Granquist et al., 2019; Rashid et al., 2025).

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The consequences extend beyond individual animals. In dairy cattle, declining mobility scores have been associated with lower milk production, increased culling, and reduced herd profitability, highlighting the close relationship between animal health, welfare, and sustainable livestock production (O'Connor et al., 2020; O'Connor et al., 2022).

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From a veterinary perspective, musculoskeletal soundness also provides valuable insight into herd health. Patterns of locomotor abnormalities may reflect interactions among nutrition, genetics, housing, flooring, stocking density, reproductive status, body condition, hoof health, and environmental management rather than isolated orthopedic problems. Consequently, mobility assessment has become an increasingly important component of population-level health monitoring.

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How This Major Pillar Relates to Livestock Health

 

The musculoskeletal system works closely with every other physiological system in the animal. Healthy bones provide structural support, muscles generate movement, joints permit flexibility, tendons and ligaments stabilize locomotion, and the nervous system coordinates precise muscular activity. Effective movement also depends on cardiovascular fitness, metabolic health, endocrine regulation, mineral balance, and adequate nutrition.

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Growth and skeletal maturation require coordinated mineral metabolism and endocrine signaling, while muscle development depends upon genetics, nutrition, hormonal regulation, and physical activity. As livestock mature, structural integrity influences reproductive performance, longevity, and productive lifespan across many production systems.

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Musculoskeletal health also interacts closely with animal welfare. Animals experiencing pain or discomfort frequently modify posture, gait, lying behavior, activity levels, and feeding behavior before overt clinical signs become apparent. These behavioral changes underpin many modern mobility assessment systems used in veterinary medicine and livestock management (Van Nuffel et al., 2015; Schlageter-Tello et al., 2014).

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Within the broader Livestock Health system, musculoskeletal soundness serves as an important link between structural biology, production efficiency, animal welfare, and precision livestock farming. Advances in imaging technologies, sensor systems, machine learning, and automated gait analysis continue to expand opportunities for earlier and more objective assessment of mobility across commercial livestock populations (Bradtmueller et al., 2023; Nejati et al., 2022).

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Key Concepts Within This Pillar

 

Understanding musculoskeletal soundness requires consideration of several interconnected scientific concepts that collectively influence healthy movement throughout an animal's life.

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Structural soundness

 

Structural soundness describes the anatomical alignment and integrity of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and supporting tissues that enable efficient movement and weight bearing. Sound structural conformation contributes to longevity, productivity, and resilience under normal production demands.

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Mobility

 

Mobility refers to an animal's ability to move comfortably and efficiently. Veterinary assessment considers stride length, gait symmetry, posture, weight distribution, walking speed, turning ability, and behavioral indicators of movement. Mobility is increasingly recognized as a practical measure of both musculoskeletal function and animal welfare.

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Skeletal development

 

Bone growth begins before birth and continues through maturity. Genetics, mineral nutrition, endocrine regulation, and appropriate physical loading all contribute to normal skeletal development. Strong skeletal foundations support growth, locomotion, and lifelong productivity across livestock species.

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Learn more in our guide to Skeletal Health in Livestock.

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Muscle development and performance

 

Muscle tissue supports locomotion, posture, metabolism, and production characteristics including carcass composition and athletic performance in working livestock. Muscle growth reflects interactions among genetics, nutrition, developmental biology, and management practices.

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Learn more in our guide to Muscle Development and Performance.

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Lameness

 

Lameness describes impaired movement resulting from pain, mechanical dysfunction, or abnormalities affecting the musculoskeletal system. It remains one of the most important welfare indicators across livestock industries because it influences comfort, behavior, productivity, and longevity. Although clinicians commonly recognize it, research increasingly emphasizes objective assessment methods to improve consistency and enable earlier detection.

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Learn more in our guide to Lameness and Mobility.

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Mobility assessment

 

Visual locomotion scoring remains the most common field method across livestock species because it is practical and inexpensive. However, observer variation and differences among scoring systems remain challenges. Current research focuses on improving objectivity through computer vision, accelerometers, pressure-sensitive walkways, gait analysis, wearable sensors, and artificial intelligence, although further validation is still needed before widespread adoption across commercial production systems (Aliiev et al., 2024; O'Leary et al., 2020; Nejati et al., 2022).

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Welfare and production efficiency

 

Healthy movement supports feeding, reproduction, maternal care, social interactions, and productive performance. Across multiple livestock species, research demonstrates that musculoskeletal soundness contributes not only to animal welfare but also to production sustainability by supporting longevity, reducing performance losses, and improving overall herd or flock health (Cook et al., 2016; Granquist et al., 2019; Wessels et al., 2025).

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Skeletal Health in Livestock

 

The skeletal system forms the structural framework that supports movement, protects internal organs, stores minerals, and provides attachment sites for muscles throughout an animal's life. Healthy bones and joints enable livestock to stand, walk, graze, forage, reproduce, and interact with their environment efficiently. Because skeletal tissues continually remodel in response to growth, nutrition, genetics, and mechanical loading, skeletal health is a dynamic process rather than a static anatomical feature.

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Across livestock production systems, skeletal soundness is increasingly recognized as a cornerstone of animal welfare, longevity, and productive performance. Structural abnormalities, developmental disorders, joint dysfunction, and bone-related diseases can impair mobility, reduce production efficiency, and compromise overall health. Although skeletal conditions vary considerably among cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, and goats, the scientific literature consistently highlights the importance of maintaining structural integrity throughout all life stages.

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The Role of the Skeleton in Livestock

 

Bones provide far more than mechanical support. They serve as living tissues that undergo continuous remodeling through coordinated activity of bone-forming and bone-resorbing cells. This remodeling enables animals to adapt to growth, changing body weight, pregnancy, lactation, exercise, and normal wear while maintaining strength and flexibility.

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Joints connect bones to permit controlled movement, while cartilage cushions articulating surfaces and reduces friction during locomotion. Ligaments stabilize joints, helping maintain normal alignment during weight bearing. Together, these structures allow livestock to perform complex movements ranging from walking and running to lying down, rising, climbing, grazing, and mating.

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Because livestock species differ greatly in body size, growth rate, and production objectives, skeletal demands also vary. Dairy cattle require durable skeletal support throughout repeated lactations, beef cattle benefit from structural conformation that promotes longevity and mobility, breeding sows rely on sound limbs to support repeated pregnancies, while rapidly growing broiler chickens experience intense skeletal demands associated with accelerated body weight gain.

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Skeletal Development Across the Lifespan

 

Skeletal development begins during fetal growth and continues through maturity as bones lengthen, mineralize, and remodel. Genetic regulation establishes the overall framework, but environmental influences shape skeletal development after birth.

Mineral metabolism plays an essential role during this period. Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and trace minerals contribute to bone mineralization, while endocrine pathways regulate growth plate activity and skeletal maturation. Mechanical loading from normal movement stimulates healthy bone remodeling according to Wolff's law, which describes how bone tissue adapts its structural density and architecture in response to the physical forces placed on it.

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The balance between skeletal growth and body weight is particularly important in modern livestock production. Selective breeding has substantially improved production traits such as growth rate, milk yield, carcass composition, and reproductive efficiency. However, rapid gains in body mass increase mechanical demands on developing bones and joints, making structural soundness an important consideration in breeding and management programs.

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Although each livestock species exhibits unique developmental patterns, the underlying biological principle remains consistent: skeletal tissues continually adapt to both physiological growth and environmental conditions throughout life.

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Structural Soundness and Functional Conformation

 

Structural soundness refers to the alignment, balance, and functional integrity of the musculoskeletal system that allows efficient movement under normal production conditions. Rather than emphasizing appearance alone, veterinary evaluation considers how anatomical structure influences locomotion, weight distribution, durability, and long-term function.

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Correct limb alignment helps distribute forces evenly across joints, tendons, ligaments, and hooves or claws during movement. Conversely, conformational abnormalities may alter gait mechanics, increase localized stress, and predispose animals to mobility problems later in life.

Recent educational research within the beef industry has highlighted that structural soundness remains an important concept for producers, veterinarians, and animal scientists, although stakeholder understanding varies considerably. Continued education regarding structural evaluation may improve consistency when selecting breeding animals and assessing long-term productivity (Greenwood et al., 2026).

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Because structural conformation develops through interactions among genetics, growth, nutrition, and environmental influences, it should be viewed as one component of overall musculoskeletal health rather than an isolated characteristic.

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Skeletal Health Across Livestock Species

 

The importance of skeletal soundness extends across major livestock species, although challenges differ by anatomy and production systems.

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In dairy cattle, skeletal integrity supports prolonged standing, walking, and repeated lactation cycles. Research consistently links mobility with overall welfare, making structural soundness an important consideration throughout the productive lifespan. Housing systems, flooring, body condition, and hoof health all interact with skeletal function and locomotion (Cook et al., 2016; Wessels et al., 2025).

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In beef cattle, structural durability supports productive longevity, breeding performance, transportation, and movement in grazing or feedlot environments. Studies evaluating mobility in slaughter cattle show that most animals move normally, although stiffness and structural abnormalities remain important welfare considerations (Lee et al., 2018).

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In swine, skeletal soundness supports sow longevity, reproductive performance, and normal locomotion within commercial housing systems. Veterinary assessments commonly incorporate standing posture, gait evaluation, and behavioral observations when evaluating locomotor function (Forseth et al., 2023).

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In broiler chickens, rapid body growth creates substantial demands on developing bones and joints. Leg disorders and altered gait have become important welfare concerns because they influence activity, access to feed and water, and overall flock performance (Granquist et al., 2019; Caplen et al., 2012).

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In sheep and goats, skeletal health supports grazing behavior across varied terrain. Mobility challenges often involve interactions among hoof health, body condition, pregnancy, breed characteristics, and environmental conditions rather than skeletal abnormalities alone (Rashid et al., 2025).

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Despite these species-specific differences, healthy skeletal development consistently supports mobility, welfare, and productive function throughout life.

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Factors Influencing Skeletal Health

 

Current veterinary research emphasizes that skeletal health arises from interactions among multiple biological and environmental factors, not any single influence.

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Genetics determines skeletal size, limb conformation, bone architecture, and growth potential. Selective breeding has successfully improved many production traits but also requires continued attention to structural soundness to ensure long-term animal durability.

Nutrition provides the substrates necessary for bone formation and remodeling. Adequate mineral balance, protein intake, and overall nutritional status support healthy skeletal development during growth and maintenance throughout adulthood.

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Housing and flooring influence how mechanical forces are distributed across bones, joints, and supporting tissues. Research in dairy cattle has consistently linked concrete flooring and inadequate bedding to poorer mobility outcomes, whereas deep, well-maintained bedding environments are associated with improved locomotion and fewer injuries (Cook et al., 2016; Wessels et al., 2025).

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Physical activity also contributes to skeletal remodeling. Normal movement stimulates bone adaptation, while restricted mobility may alter musculoskeletal loading patterns. Emerging research on outdoor access suggests that environmental opportunities for movement remain an active area of investigation in dairy cattle (Nejati et al., 2024).

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Assessing Skeletal Soundness

 

Veterinary assessment of skeletal health combines observation of posture, limb alignment, gait, weight distribution, and overall structural conformation with clinical examination when indicated. Because skeletal disorders often influence locomotion before overt structural changes become apparent, movement assessment plays a central role in evaluating musculoskeletal function.

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Advanced diagnostic imaging provides additional information when more detailed evaluation is required. While radiography remains the primary diagnostic modality for evaluating osseous structures, ultrasonography serves as an invaluable tool for assessing superficial soft tissue structures—including tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules—in individual clinical cases (Kofler, 2009). Newer imaging techniques, including musculoskeletal elastography, continue to expand diagnostic capabilities in veterinary medicine, although much of the research remains focused on clinical applications rather than routine herd screening (Silva et al., 2025).

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Technological advances are also transforming structural assessment. Motion capture, wearable sensors, inertial measurement units, computer vision, and three-dimensional gait analysis allow researchers to quantify movement with increasing precision. Although these technologies continue to improve, many remain primarily research tools while validation for routine commercial livestock use continues (Bradtmueller et al., 2023; Nejati et al., 2022).

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Why Skeletal Health Matters

 

Healthy skeletal systems support far more than movement alone. Structural integrity influences animal welfare, productive lifespan, reproductive efficiency, behavioral expression, and economic sustainability across livestock industries.

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Current evidence demonstrates that musculoskeletal soundness depends upon coordinated interactions among skeletal development, muscle function, joint integrity, locomotion, genetics, nutrition, and environmental management. As precision livestock technologies continue to evolve, objective assessment of skeletal function is expected to play an increasingly important role in monitoring animal health and welfare across commercial production systems.

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Muscle Development and Performance

 

Muscle development is a fundamental component of musculoskeletal soundness in livestock because muscles generate the force required for movement, maintain posture, stabilize joints, and support productive functions throughout an animal's life. Healthy skeletal muscles work closely with bones, tendons, ligaments, and the nervous system to produce efficient locomotion while also contributing to growth, reproduction, metabolic regulation, and species-specific production traits.

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Across modern livestock production, muscle development receives considerable attention because it directly influences carcass composition, feed efficiency, work capacity, and overall productivity. However, veterinary research increasingly recognizes that muscle development should not be evaluated solely by muscle mass. Functional performance depends on muscle quality, coordination, fiber composition, metabolism, structural soundness, and the animal's ability to move comfortably across different life stages.

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As with other aspects of musculoskeletal health, muscle development reflects complex interactions among genetics, nutrition, physiology, management, environment, and physical activity.

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The Biology of Skeletal Muscle

 

Skeletal muscle is a highly specialized tissue composed of thousands of muscle fibers organized into bundles that contract in response to signals from the nervous system. These contractions produce voluntary movement while helping maintain posture and stabilize joints during standing, walking, running, grazing, feeding, and reproductive behaviors.

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Muscles also serve important metabolic functions beyond locomotion. They store protein reserves, regulate energy utilization, contribute to heat production, and influence whole-body metabolism. Throughout life, skeletal muscle continuously adapts in response to growth, hormonal regulation, nutritional status, and mechanical loading.

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Development begins during fetal life as muscle fibers form through tightly regulated developmental pathways. After birth, muscle growth occurs primarily through enlargement of existing fibers rather than formation of new ones, making early developmental processes particularly important for long-term muscular capacity.

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Healthy muscle function therefore depends not only on muscle quantity but also on coordinated neuromuscular control, adequate blood supply, connective tissue support, and normal interactions with the skeletal system.

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Genetics and Muscle Growth

 

Genetics plays a central role in determining muscle mass, body composition, growth rate, and overall musculoskeletal performance. Selective breeding has produced substantial improvements in production traits across livestock species, including increased lean tissue deposition in meat animals and improved efficiency in commercial production systems.

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Recent genomic research demonstrates that muscularity is influenced by numerous genes rather than a single genetic pathway. A comparative study across five beef cattle breeds identified distinct genomic regions associated with muscularity, illustrating that different breeds achieve similar production characteristics through different genetic mechanisms (Doyle et al., 2020).

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Comparative transcriptomic analyses have also revealed species-specific patterns of muscle gene expression among cattle, pigs, and sheep, suggesting that different livestock species regulate muscle development through unique molecular pathways despite sharing many common physiological processes (Guo et al., 2024).

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These findings highlight that muscle development reflects both conserved biological mechanisms and species-specific adaptations that influence production characteristics.

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Muscle Fiber Characteristics

 

Not all skeletal muscle fibers perform identical functions. Veterinary and animal science research commonly classifies muscle fibers by contractile speed, metabolic properties, and resistance to fatigue.

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Some fibers specialize in sustained activity and efficient energy utilization, while others generate rapid, powerful contractions that support short-duration movements. The relative proportion of different muscle fiber types varies among species, breeds, anatomical locations, and individual animals.

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Research comparing goats and sheep demonstrates measurable differences in skeletal muscle fiber characteristics between these closely related species, contributing to variations in muscular performance and carcass attributes (Park et al., 2022).

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Although these microscopic differences are not directly visible during routine clinical evaluation, they help explain why muscle function varies among livestock species and production systems.

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Muscle Development Across Livestock Species

 

Muscle development serves different biological and production purposes across livestock species.

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In beef cattle, muscularity contributes substantially to carcass composition and meat production. Balanced muscle growth supports efficient movement and influences economically important production traits. Structural soundness remains important because excessive emphasis on muscle mass without corresponding skeletal support may affect mobility and longevity.

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In dairy cattle, skeletal muscles support locomotion, prolonged standing, and repeated lactation cycles. Muscle tissue also serves as an important metabolic reserve during physiologically demanding periods. Research examining high-producing dairy cows around calving has demonstrated measurable muscle tissue mobilization during the transition period, reflecting the close relationship between metabolism and musculoskeletal physiology (Hatfield et al., 2022).

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In swine, muscle development influences both locomotor function and carcass characteristics. Healthy musculature contributes to normal gait, postural stability, and reproductive performance, particularly in breeding females that repeatedly support increasing body weight during gestation.

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In broiler chickens, rapid muscle growth is a defining production characteristic. However, maintaining a balance between muscle accretion and skeletal development remains important because locomotor function depends on coordinated musculoskeletal growth.

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In sheep and goats, muscle development supports grazing behavior across varied terrain while contributing to meat production in many production systems. Functional muscle performance enables efficient movement over long distances and diverse environmental conditions.

Despite these species differences, healthy muscle development consistently supports structural stability, locomotion, and overall musculoskeletal function.

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Muscle Function and Locomotion

 

Muscles do not operate independently. Efficient locomotion depends upon coordinated interaction among muscles, bones, joints, tendons, ligaments, and the nervous system.

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During walking, muscles generate force that moves joints through controlled ranges of motion while simultaneously stabilizing the body against gravity. Multiple muscle groups activate sequentially to maintain balance, absorb impact, and propel the animal forward.

Veterinary biomechanics research increasingly uses computational modeling and motion analysis to better understand these complex interactions. Recent predictive physics simulations of quadrupedal locomotion in horses demonstrate how coordinated muscle activity generates efficient movement while adapting to changing mechanical demands (Van Bijlert et al., 2024).

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Similarly, gait analysis studies across livestock species continue to improve understanding of how muscular function contributes to normal locomotion and altered movement associated with musculoskeletal disorders (Sveum et al., 2023).

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These advances emphasize that locomotion reflects integrated whole-body function rather than isolated muscle activity.

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Factors Influencing Muscle Development

 

Current evidence indicates that numerous interacting biological and environmental influences shape muscle development.

Genetics establishes the overall potential for muscle growth and body composition.

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Nutrition supplies the amino acids, energy, vitamins, and minerals required for protein synthesis, tissue maintenance, and metabolic function throughout life.

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Age influences muscle growth patterns, with rapid development occurring during juvenile stages followed by gradual changes associated with maturity and aging.

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Hormonal regulation coordinates muscle growth, metabolism, and adaptation throughout different physiological stages, including pregnancy, lactation, and growth.

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Physical activity provides mechanical stimulation that influences muscle remodeling and maintenance. Normal movement supports healthy muscle function by promoting coordinated neuromuscular activity and maintaining muscle strength.

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Because these factors interact continuously, muscle development should be viewed as an ongoing adaptive process rather than a fixed production trait.

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Muscle Performance and Production Efficiency

 

Healthy muscle function contributes to productivity in several ways beyond increased muscle mass.

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Efficient locomotion allows animals to access feed, water, and resting areas while reducing unnecessary energy expenditure. Strong postural muscles support prolonged standing, normal reproductive behavior, and maternal care. Functional muscle development also influences carcass quality, work capacity, and overall resilience under commercial production conditions.

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Conversely, impaired muscle function may alter gait, reduce activity, and contribute to declining mobility. Because muscles stabilize joints and absorb mechanical forces during movement, muscular weakness or dysfunction may indirectly affect overall musculoskeletal performance.

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Research therefore increasingly emphasizes functional outcomes—including locomotion, endurance, coordination, and postural stability—alongside traditional production measures when evaluating musculoskeletal health.

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Muscle Development as Part of Musculoskeletal Soundness

 

Rather than an isolated production characteristic, muscle development is one component of a highly integrated musculoskeletal system. Healthy muscles depend upon sound skeletal support, while bones rely on muscular activity to stimulate normal remodeling and maintain structural integrity.

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This close relationship explains why modern veterinary research increasingly evaluates muscle development together with locomotion, structural conformation, gait analysis, welfare assessment, and precision monitoring technologies. As objective methods continue to evolve, muscle performance is expected to become an increasingly important component of comprehensive musculoskeletal evaluation across livestock species.

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Ultimately, healthy muscle development supports more than production efficiency. It enables comfortable movement, normal behavior, structural stability, and lifelong musculoskeletal function that contributes to both animal welfare and sustainable livestock production.

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Lameness and Mobility

 

Lameness and impaired mobility are among the most significant musculoskeletal challenges affecting livestock worldwide. Although often discussed interchangeably, mobility encompasses the broader ability to move comfortably and efficiently, while lameness refers to an abnormal gait or locomotor impairment resulting from pain, mechanical dysfunction, or abnormalities affecting the musculoskeletal system. Together, they serve as practical indicators of musculoskeletal health, animal welfare, and production efficiency across diverse livestock species.

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Modern veterinary medicine increasingly recognizes that mobility reflects the integrated function of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, hooves or claws, and the nervous system. Consequently, changes in gait frequently represent the cumulative effects of multiple biological and environmental factors rather than isolated orthopedic conditions.

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Research over the past decade has expanded understanding of livestock mobility while also highlighting ongoing challenges in accurately identifying, quantifying, and comparing locomotor abnormalities among different species and production systems.

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Mobility Across Livestock Species

 

Mobility challenges occur throughout the livestock industry, although prevalence varies considerably depending on species, housing systems, management practices, genetics, and assessment methods.

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Among dairy cattle, lameness remains one of the most extensively studied welfare concerns. A systematic review and meta-analysis of dairy herds in Northwest Europe estimated a median cow-level lameness prevalence of 29.5%, with reported values ranging from 2.6% to 63.7%, illustrating the substantial variation among production systems and scoring methodologies (Wessels et al., 2025). Earlier investigations in high-producing Wisconsin dairy herds reported an average clinical lameness prevalence of 13.2%, with severe lameness affecting approximately 2.5% of cows (Cook et al., 2016).

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In beef cattle, mobility problems appear less common overall than in dairy cattle, although they remain important welfare considerations. A large investigation at United States slaughter facilities found that more than 97% of finished cattle exhibited normal mobility, while severe mobility impairment occurred infrequently. General stiffness was observed more often than overt lameness, emphasizing that mobility exists along a continuum rather than as a simple normal-or-abnormal condition (Lee et al., 2018).

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Broiler chickens experience unique locomotor challenges associated with rapid growth and skeletal maturation. Approximately 19% of broilers in one study demonstrated moderate-to-severe lameness, with worsening gait scores associated with poorer welfare indicators including footpad dermatitis, hock burn, reduced cleanliness, and increased carcass condemnations at processing (Granquist et al., 2019).

In small ruminants, mobility problems also represent significant welfare concerns. Recent research involving Malaysian farms reported lameness prevalence of 42.8% in sheep and 23.0% in goats. Hoof disorders affected over 90% of sheep and approximately 43% of goats, with lesions occurring predominantly in the hind limbs (Rashid et al., 2025).

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Swine, particularly breeding sows, commonly undergo mobility assessment because locomotor function influences longevity, reproductive performance, and welfare. Studies demonstrate that locomotion scoring, standing posture, behavioral observations, and mechanical sensitivity testing each contribute valuable information during mobility evaluations (Forseth et al., 2023).

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Although prevalence differs considerably among livestock species, impaired mobility consistently represents an important indicator of musculoskeletal health.

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Factors That Influence Mobility

 

Current research demonstrates that mobility develops through interactions among biological, environmental, and management factors rather than a single underlying cause.

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One of the strongest and most consistent findings involves body condition. Dairy cows with lower body condition scores exhibit increased risk for poorer mobility, suggesting important relationships among nutritional status, energy balance, claw health, and musculoskeletal function (O'Connor et al., 2019; Oehm et al., 2022).

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Parity also influences mobility. Older animals that have undergone multiple production cycles frequently experience greater cumulative mechanical loading and age-related musculoskeletal changes than younger individuals. Consequently, higher parity has been associated with declining mobility in several dairy cattle studies (Wessels et al., 2025).

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Housing and flooring play major roles across intensive production systems. Concrete flooring increases mechanical stress on limbs and hooves, whereas deep loose bedding has been associated with improved mobility and fewer injuries in dairy cattle (Cook et al., 2016; Wessels et al., 2025). Research also suggests that access to pasture or outdoor movement opportunities may positively influence gait and hoof health, although ongoing investigation continues to refine these relationships (Nejati et al., 2024).

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Species-specific factors further influence mobility. Pregnancy and semi-intensive management have been associated with greater lameness risk in sheep, while exotic goat breeds and overgrown hoof walls increase the likelihood of mobility problems in goats (Rashid et al., 2025).

Collectively, these findings illustrate that musculoskeletal soundness reflects interactions among genetics, nutrition, housing, management, environment, and animal physiology.

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Effects on Animal Welfare and Production

 

Mobility influences much more than locomotion. Animals depend upon comfortable movement to access feed, water, resting areas, breeding opportunities, and social interactions. Consequently, declining mobility often affects behavior, productivity, and welfare simultaneously.

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In dairy cattle, worsening mobility scores have been associated with measurable reductions in milk production. Cows receiving intermediate mobility scores produced up to 1.4% less milk, while those with poorer mobility experienced reductions approaching 4.7% compared with sound herdmates (O'Connor et al., 2020).

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Economic modeling further demonstrates the broader implications of musculoskeletal health. Simulated dairy herd analyses estimated that poor mobility could reduce overall net profit by approximately 17%, reflecting combined effects of reduced milk production, increased culling, and additional management costs (O'Connor et al., 2022).

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In poultry, worsening gait scores correlate with several established welfare indicators, including hock lesions, footpad dermatitis, and reduced cleanliness, demonstrating that locomotor impairment often accompanies broader welfare challenges (Granquist et al., 2019).

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These findings emphasize that mobility functions as both a welfare indicator and a production metric across multiple livestock industries.

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Assessing Mobility

 

Visual locomotion scoring remains the most widely used method for evaluating mobility under field conditions because it is practical, inexpensive, and applicable across diverse production systems.

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During visual assessment, trained observers evaluate characteristics such as:

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• posture

• stride length

• gait symmetry

• back posture

• weight bearing

• head movement

• walking speed

• willingness to move

 

Although widely adopted, numerous scoring systems exist across livestock species, limiting direct comparison among studies. Reviews consistently identify standardization as one of the greatest challenges facing mobility assessment in veterinary medicine (Schlageter-Tello et al., 2014; Wessels et al., 2025).

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Nevertheless, observer training improves consistency. Studies evaluating mobility scoring demonstrate moderate to substantial agreement among experienced observers, supporting continued use of standardized visual assessment under commercial conditions (García et al., 2015; Guzman et al., 2024).

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Objective Mobility Assessment

 

Rapid technological advances are transforming livestock mobility research by reducing reliance on subjective visual evaluation.

Computer vision systems can automatically identify anatomical landmarks and calculate movement characteristics such as:

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• stride length

• stride duration

• step height

• walking speed

• back curvature

• limb movement symmetry

• tracking distance

 

Several recent studies have demonstrated promising accuracy using video-based pose estimation and machine learning for dairy cattle, beef cattle, and swine (Higaki et al., 2024; Russello et al., 2024; De Paula et al., 2024).

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Wearable technologies also continue to expand. Accelerometers, pressure-sensitive walkways, inertial measurement units, and gait sensors provide objective measurements of activity and locomotion without relying exclusively on visual observation (O'Leary et al., 2020; Bradtmueller et al., 2023).

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Despite these advances, systematic reviews conclude that additional validation is still necessary before many automated systems achieve sufficient sensitivity, specificity, and robustness for routine commercial application across diverse production environments (Nejati et al., 2022).

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Challenges in Detecting Lameness

 

Although locomotion scoring remains an essential welfare tool, accurately identifying early mobility problems remains challenging.

Research involving pasture-based dairy cattle demonstrated that mobility scoring showed high specificity but relatively poor sensitivity for detecting underlying foot lesions. Depending on lesion severity, sensitivity ranged from only 0.18 to 0.43, indicating that some animals with clinically important lesions maintained relatively normal locomotion scores (Logan et al., 2023).

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Biomechanical investigations further illustrate that certain gait variables provide greater diagnostic value than others. In dairy cattle, shortened stride length and negative tracking distance more consistently distinguished lame animals than spinal posture alone (Blackie et al., 2013).

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Similarly, sow studies demonstrate that combining locomotion scoring with standing assessment, behavioral observations, obstacle-course performance, and nociceptive testing improves discrimination between sound and mildly lame animals, although differentiating specific causes of lameness remains more difficult (Forseth et al., 2023).

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These findings reinforce the importance of interpreting mobility as one component of a comprehensive musculoskeletal evaluation rather than relying upon any single measurement.

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Mobility as a Whole-Animal Health Indicator

 

Contemporary veterinary research increasingly views mobility as an integrated measure of structural soundness, musculoskeletal function, welfare, and production sustainability. Rather than representing only orthopedic disease, altered gait often reflects interactions among body condition, hoof health, skeletal integrity, muscular function, environmental conditions, and management practices.

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Across cattle, swine, sheep, goats, poultry, and other livestock species, one consistent pattern emerges from current evidence: environments that support comfortable movement—through appropriate flooring, bedding, body condition, and early recognition of mobility changes—are generally associated with better musculoskeletal soundness and improved welfare outcomes (Cook et al., 2016; Wessels et al., 2025).

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As precision livestock technologies continue to mature, combining traditional veterinary assessment with objective digital monitoring is expected to improve understanding of musculoskeletal health while supporting more consistent evaluation across livestock production systems.

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Current Research Themes

 

Research on musculoskeletal soundness in livestock is rapidly evolving as veterinary medicine, animal science, engineering, and computer science increasingly intersect. While traditional studies focused primarily on clinical lameness and orthopedic disorders, contemporary research emphasizes earlier detection, objective measurement, welfare assessment, and precision livestock farming.

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Several major themes are shaping current scientific understanding.

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Standardizing Mobility Assessment

 

Visual locomotion scoring remains the most widely used assessment tool across livestock species because it is practical and inexpensive. However, considerable variation still exists among scoring systems, observer training, and interpretation, making comparisons between studies and production systems difficult.

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Recent systematic reviews continue to identify standardization and validation of scoring systems as important research priorities, particularly for dairy cattle and beef cattle (Wessels et al., 2025; Schlageter-Tello et al., 2014).

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Precision Livestock Technologies

 

Artificial intelligence, computer vision, wearable sensors, accelerometers, inertial measurement units, and pressure-sensitive walkways are transforming mobility assessment.

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Rather than relying solely on human observation, these systems automatically quantify gait characteristics such as stride length, walking speed, limb movement, posture, and back curvature. Although many technologies remain under validation, they have the potential to improve consistency, reduce observer bias, and identify subtle mobility changes earlier than traditional methods (Bradtmueller et al., 2023; Nejati et al., 2022).

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Objective Welfare Indicators

 

Mobility is increasingly viewed as one component of comprehensive welfare assessment rather than an isolated orthopedic outcome.

Researchers are integrating locomotion with behavioral observations, body condition, activity monitoring, lying behavior, claw health, production records, and physiological measurements to better understand how musculoskeletal health reflects overall animal well-being.

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This multidisciplinary approach recognizes that changes in movement often occur alongside broader changes in health and behavior.

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Genetics and Functional Longevity

 

Genomic research continues to improve understanding of the biological pathways influencing skeletal development, muscularity, locomotion, and structural durability.

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Rather than selecting solely for production traits, breeding programs increasingly consider structural soundness and longevity to promote sustainable livestock production over multiple productive years (Doyle et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2024).

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Species-Specific Research

 

Although common biological principles exist across livestock, species-specific investigations remain essential because cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, and goats differ substantially in anatomy, production systems, locomotor biomechanics, and management practices.

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Future research will likely continue refining assessment tools tailored to individual livestock species while improving opportunities for cross-species comparison.

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Frequently Asked Questions

 

What is musculoskeletal soundness in livestock?

 

Musculoskeletal soundness refers to the structural integrity and functional performance of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and related tissues that allow livestock to move comfortably, bear weight normally, and perform routine activities throughout life.

 

Why is mobility important in livestock?

 

Mobility supports feeding, drinking, breeding, maternal behavior, grazing, social interaction, and overall welfare. Reduced mobility has also been associated with decreased production efficiency and shorter productive lifespans in several livestock species.

 

Is lameness the same as poor mobility?

 

Not exactly. Lameness is one cause of impaired mobility, but mobility also reflects overall movement quality, posture, gait, weight bearing, and locomotor function. An animal may demonstrate subtle mobility changes before obvious lameness develops.

 

Which livestock species are most commonly affected by mobility problems?

 

Mobility disorders occur across cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, and goats. However, prevalence differs considerably among species, production systems, housing conditions, and assessment methods.

 

How is livestock mobility evaluated?

 

Veterinarians and researchers commonly assess mobility using visual locomotion scoring, gait observation, posture evaluation, and behavioral assessment. Emerging technologies such as computer vision, wearable sensors, and machine learning are increasingly being investigated to provide more objective measurements.

 

Why are new technologies being developed for mobility assessment?

 

Traditional visual scoring can vary among observers and may fail to detect subtle changes in movement. Objective technologies aim to improve consistency, identify early mobility changes, and support precision livestock management.

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Explore Related Topics

 

Continue exploring the Livestock Health Veterinary Knowledge System:

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• Livestock Health Overview

• Skeletal Health in Livestock

• Muscle Development and Performance

• Lameness and Mobility