Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted by living organisms known as vectors, most commonly blood-feeding arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, sand flies, and lice. Rather than causing disease directly, these vectors carry bacteria, viruses, parasites, or other pathogens from one host to another during feeding. The result is a diverse group of diseases that affect companion animals, livestock, wildlife, and humans across nearly every region of the world. As environmental conditions, land use, and global travel continue to change, the distribution of many vectors and the pathogens they carry is also changing, making vector-borne diseases an increasingly important topic in veterinary medicine and public health (Chala & Hamde, 2021; Wilson et al., 2020).

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Globally, vector-borne diseases account for approximately 17% of all infectious diseases and are responsible for an estimated 700,000 deaths each year. Their impact extends far beyond human health, affecting animal welfare, livestock productivity, biodiversity, food security, and ecosystem stability. Many of these diseases occur in tropical and subtropical regions where climate, ecology, and socioeconomic conditions favor vector survival, although expanding geographic ranges mean that historically unaffected areas are increasingly reporting new cases (Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020; Hiscox et al., 2025).

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For veterinarians, understanding vector-borne diseases requires more than recognizing individual pathogens. It involves understanding the complex interactions among vectors, hosts, pathogens, and the environment. These interactions form the foundation of the One Health concept, which recognizes that the health of people, animals, and ecosystems is closely interconnected. Because many vector-borne pathogens circulate between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans, surveillance and prevention often require collaboration across multiple disciplines rather than focusing on a single species alone.

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What This Major Pillar Covers

 

This Major Pillar provides an evidence-based introduction to vector-borne diseases within the One Health & Public Health Overview knowledge system.

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Rather than focusing on the diagnosis or management of individual diseases, this educational hub explains the broader scientific concepts that shape veterinary vector-borne diseases and their importance for animal and human health. It explores how vectors transmit pathogens, why disease patterns vary across regions, and how ecological and environmental changes influence disease emergence.

The pillar also introduces three closely related educational topics that provide more detailed discussions of specific aspects of vector-borne disease science:

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• Mosquito-Borne Diseases

• Tick-Borne Diseases

• Vector Ecology and Surveillance

 

Together, these topics illustrate how disease vectors influence pathogen transmission and why surveillance, ecology, and public health are essential components of modern veterinary medicine.

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This page also connects directly with the parent system: One Health & Public Health Overview.

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Why This Area Matters

 

Vector-borne diseases remain among the world's most important infectious disease challenges because they affect multiple species simultaneously while responding rapidly to environmental change. Unlike infections transmitted directly between hosts, vector-borne diseases depend on the presence of competent vectors, suitable environmental conditions, susceptible hosts, and circulating pathogens. Changes in any of these components can alter disease transmission patterns.

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Many well-known diseases—including malaria, dengue, Lyme disease, West Nile fever, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever, lymphatic filariasis, schistosomiasis, tick-borne encephalitis, and Zika virus disease—are transmitted through arthropod vectors. Collectively, several of these diseases threaten more than 80% of the global population, and many regions experience the simultaneous circulation of multiple vector-borne pathogens (Wilson et al., 2020; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020).

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The veterinary significance extends beyond companion animals. Livestock vector-borne diseases influence food production, animal welfare, and agricultural economics, while infections circulating in wildlife reservoirs can create opportunities for spillover into domestic animals and people. Some pathogens affect only animals, others primarily affect humans, and many have important zoonotic potential. Understanding these relationships is essential for protecting both animal and public health.

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Regional surveillance data demonstrate that vector-borne diseases continue to evolve rather than remain static. In the United States, more than 640,000 cases of nationally notifiable vector-borne diseases were reported between 2004 and 2016, with tick-borne diseases accounting for approximately three-quarters of reported cases. Lyme disease alone represented the majority of reported tick-borne infections, highlighting how disease burdens differ according to regional ecology and vector distribution (Rosenberg et al., 2018).

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Similar patterns have been observed elsewhere. Long-term surveillance in China has documented changing distributions of mosquito-borne, rodent-borne, and tick-borne diseases over the past two decades, with several diseases expanding into new geographic areas. These observations emphasize that vector-borne diseases are dynamic and require continuous monitoring rather than assuming historical distributions remain unchanged (Liu et al., 2025).

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For veterinary professionals, researchers, and animal owners alike, understanding these changing patterns supports greater awareness of disease ecology, emerging infectious threats, and the value of surveillance systems that detect changes before widespread outbreaks occur.

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How This Major Pillar Relates to One Health & Public Health Overview

 

Vector-borne diseases provide one of the clearest examples of the One Health approach in action. Disease transmission depends on interactions among humans, domestic animals, wildlife, vectors, and environmental conditions. No single discipline can fully explain or control these diseases without considering the others.

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For example, mosquitoes feeding on infected wildlife may subsequently transmit pathogens to domestic animals or humans, while ticks frequently move between wildlife hosts, livestock, companion animals, and people during different stages of their life cycles. Environmental changes such as altered rainfall patterns, warmer temperatures, deforestation, irrigation projects, and urban expansion influence where vectors survive and reproduce, ultimately shaping disease risk across entire ecosystems (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Gratz, 1999).

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Modern transportation and international travel further strengthen these connections by allowing pathogens, vectors, or infected hosts to reach regions where they were previously absent. Combined with socioeconomic factors such as poverty, limited sanitation infrastructure, and reduced access to surveillance programs, these influences contribute to the emergence and re-emergence of vector-borne diseases in many parts of the world (Gubler, 2009; Laroche & Weeks, 2023; Chala & Hamde, 2021).

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A One Health framework therefore emphasizes collaboration among veterinary medicine, human medicine, entomology, ecology, environmental science, epidemiology, and public health. Surveillance systems that integrate information across these fields improve understanding of disease emergence and help identify changing transmission patterns earlier than isolated monitoring programs.

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This systems-based perspective is increasingly important as climate variability, land-use change, and expanding vector ranges continue to reshape disease ecology worldwide.

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Key Concepts Within This Pillar

 

Several core concepts provide the foundation for understanding vector-borne diseases in veterinary and public health.

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Disease vectors are living organisms—most often arthropods—that transmit pathogens between susceptible hosts. Mosquitoes and ticks receive the greatest attention because of their global importance, but fleas, lice, sand flies, biting midges, and other blood-feeding arthropods also contribute to disease transmission.

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Pathogen transmission depends on complex biological interactions involving the vector, the pathogen, and one or more hosts. Successful transmission requires environmental conditions that support vector survival while allowing pathogens to complete their developmental or replication cycles.

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Vector ecology examines how climate, habitat, biodiversity, seasonality, host availability, and environmental conditions influence vector populations. Changes in any of these ecological factors can alter disease risk by affecting vector abundance, feeding behavior, or geographic distribution.

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Surveillance refers to the systematic collection and analysis of information about vectors, pathogens, hosts, and disease occurrence. Effective surveillance supports early detection of emerging diseases, identification of geographic expansion, and improved understanding of long-term disease trends (Rosenberg et al., 2018; Hiscox et al., 2025).

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Another important concept is the role of environmental drivers. Research consistently demonstrates that temperature, rainfall, humidity, land-use change, urbanization, deforestation, irrigation, globalization, and socioeconomic conditions influence vector populations and disease transmission, although their effects vary considerably between pathogens and ecosystems rather than following a single universal pattern (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Gratz, 1999).

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Finally, adaptive vector control and surveillance remain central themes across the scientific literature. Historical successes in reducing vector-borne diseases demonstrate the value of coordinated control programs, while contemporary research emphasizes evidence-based, locally tailored approaches supported by strong surveillance systems, improved diagnostics, predictive technologies, and multidisciplinary collaboration rather than reliance on any single intervention (Wilson et al., 2020; Shaw & Catteruccia, 2018; Hiscox et al., 2025).

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These concepts establish the scientific framework for the more detailed discussions presented in the following sections on mosquito-borne diseases, tick-borne diseases, and vector ecology and surveillance.

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Mosquito-Borne Diseases

 

Mosquitoes are among the most important disease vectors affecting both veterinary and human medicine. More than nuisance insects, they serve as biological carriers for numerous viruses, parasites, and other pathogens that circulate among wildlife, domestic animals, livestock, and people. Their widespread geographic distribution, ability to feed on multiple host species, and rapid reproductive cycles make mosquitoes highly effective at maintaining and spreading infectious diseases across diverse ecosystems. As environmental conditions change, mosquito populations and the diseases they transmit continue to expand into new regions, reinforcing their importance within a One Health framework (Wilson et al., 2020; Socha et al., 2022).

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Unlike pathogens transmitted directly between infected individuals, mosquito-borne diseases depend on a complex ecological cycle involving the mosquito vector, susceptible hosts, environmental conditions, and the infectious agent itself. After feeding on an infected host, certain mosquito species become capable of transmitting pathogens to subsequent hosts during later blood meals. Not all mosquitoes can transmit every pathogen, as successful transmission depends on vector competence, pathogen biology, climate, and local ecological conditions.

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Globally, mosquito-borne diseases represent some of the most significant infectious threats to both humans and animals. Diseases such as malaria, dengue, yellow fever, Zika virus disease, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever, and lymphatic filariasis are all transmitted primarily by mosquitoes. Several of these diseases threaten populations across tropical and subtropical regions, while others have expanded into temperate climates as vector distributions change. Collectively, dengue, malaria, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, lymphatic filariasis, and other major mosquito-borne diseases place more than 80% of the world's population at risk, with many regions experiencing multiple endemic diseases simultaneously (Wilson et al., 2020; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020).

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Mosquito-borne pathogens also have substantial veterinary importance. Many wildlife species act as natural reservoirs for arboviruses, allowing pathogens to persist even when human or domestic animal cases decline. Birds, mammals, and other vertebrates may contribute to transmission cycles that occasionally spill over into companion animals, livestock, or people. Because these pathogens often circulate across multiple species, veterinary surveillance contributes valuable information to broader public health monitoring programs.

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Environmental factors strongly influence mosquito populations and disease transmission. Temperature affects mosquito development, biting frequency, survival, and pathogen replication within the insect. Rainfall creates breeding habitats for many mosquito species, while humidity influences adult survival and activity. However, these relationships are rarely straightforward. Increased rainfall may expand breeding sites in some locations but reduce mosquito populations elsewhere through flooding, while drought can sometimes concentrate both hosts and vectors around limited water sources. Consequently, climate influences disease transmission through complex ecological interactions rather than simple linear relationships (De Souza & Weaver, 2024).

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Human activities also shape mosquito ecology. Urbanization, irrigation, dam construction, agricultural expansion, and land-use changes frequently create new breeding habitats or alter mosquito species composition. At the same time, globalization and modern transportation enable infected travelers, animals, or even mosquito vectors to introduce pathogens into previously unaffected regions. These interconnected drivers help explain why mosquito-borne diseases have emerged or re-emerged in many parts of the world over recent decades (Gratz, 1999; Gubler, 2009; De Souza & Weaver, 2024).

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Arboviral diseases—viral infections transmitted by arthropods—are receiving increasing scientific attention because of their expanding geographic range and their implications for both animal and human health. Reviews consistently identify arboviruses as growing global health concerns, particularly as changing environmental conditions allow mosquito vectors to establish populations in new locations. This expanding distribution highlights why mosquito-borne diseases are considered a cornerstone of the One Health approach, requiring coordinated surveillance across veterinary, medical, environmental, and public health disciplines (Socha et al., 2022; Hiscox et al., 2025).

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Mosquito-borne diseases also illustrate the importance of surveillance systems. Monitoring mosquito populations, pathogen circulation, wildlife reservoirs, and disease occurrence provides early warning of changing transmission patterns. Modern surveillance increasingly integrates field sampling with geographic information systems, climate data, molecular diagnostics, and predictive modeling to better understand where disease risk may increase. Emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence and advanced data analytics, are being explored to improve outbreak prediction and support more adaptive public health responses (Hiscox et al., 2025).

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Continued research emphasizes that no single factor explains the emergence of mosquito-borne diseases. Instead, disease transmission reflects the interaction of vector biology, pathogen evolution, environmental change, human behavior, wildlife ecology, and socioeconomic conditions. Understanding these relationships provides the scientific foundation for the next major topic within this pillar: Tick-Borne Diseases, which differ from mosquito-borne infections in their ecology, host associations, and patterns of disease transmission.

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Explore the companion guide to Tick-Borne Diseases.

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Tick-Borne Diseases

 

Ticks are among the most significant vectors of infectious diseases affecting companion animals, livestock, wildlife, and humans. Unlike mosquitoes, which typically feed for only a short period, ticks often remain attached to their hosts for extended durations while taking a blood meal. This prolonged feeding behavior provides opportunities for pathogens to move between the tick and its host, making ticks highly efficient transmitters of numerous bacteria, viruses, and protozoan parasites. Their close association with wildlife reservoirs and their expanding geographic distribution have made tick-borne diseases one of the fastest-growing groups of vector-borne infections in many regions of the world (Rosenberg et al., 2018; Wilson et al., 2020).

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From a veterinary perspective, tick-borne diseases illustrate the complexity of pathogen transmission within natural ecosystems. Many tick species feed on different animal hosts throughout their life cycle, allowing pathogens to circulate among wildlife, domestic animals, livestock, and, in some cases, humans. This interconnected transmission cycle highlights why veterinarians play an important role in disease surveillance and why tick-borne diseases are frequently discussed within the broader context of One Health.

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Globally, ticks transmit a wide variety of pathogens responsible for diseases such as Lyme disease, tick-borne encephalitis, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, and spotted fever group rickettsioses. The specific diseases present in a region depend on local tick species, wildlife reservoirs, environmental conditions, and the pathogens circulating within those ecosystems. As a result, the distribution of tick-borne diseases varies considerably across continents and even within neighboring regions.

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Surveillance data demonstrate that tick-borne diseases have become an increasingly important public health concern. In the United States, reported vector-borne diseases more than doubled between 2004 and 2016, with tick-borne diseases accounting for approximately 77% of all reported cases. Lyme disease represented the majority of these reports, accounting for approximately 82% of reported tick-borne infections during that period. These findings illustrate how changes in tick ecology and geographic distribution can substantially influence national disease patterns (Rosenberg et al., 2018).

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Long-term surveillance from other parts of the world shows similar trends. In China, national surveillance between 2005 and 2024 found that while several mosquito-borne diseases declined, tick-borne diseases continued to increase, accompanied by the geographic expansion of several emerging infections. These changing patterns demonstrate that vector-borne disease risk is dynamic and influenced by ecological changes rather than remaining fixed over time (Liu et al., 2025).

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Environmental conditions strongly influence tick survival and pathogen transmission. Temperature, humidity, vegetation, and seasonal weather patterns affect tick development, activity, and survival, while the abundance of wildlife hosts determines opportunities for feeding and pathogen maintenance. Climate change has attracted particular scientific attention because warming temperatures and shifting environmental conditions are altering the habitats suitable for many tick species. However, researchers consistently emphasize that climate is only one of many interacting drivers. Land-use change, biodiversity, wildlife movement, and human activities also shape where ticks establish populations and how diseases spread (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020).

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Wildlife plays a central role in the ecology of many tick-borne diseases. Numerous mammals, birds, and reptiles serve as reservoir hosts that maintain pathogens within natural environments without necessarily showing obvious signs of disease. Ticks feeding on these reservoir species can subsequently transmit pathogens to domestic animals or humans during later life stages. Because wildlife, livestock, companion animals, and people often share overlapping habitats, veterinary surveillance contributes valuable information for understanding pathogen circulation across species boundaries.

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Socioeconomic and environmental changes further influence the emergence of tick-borne diseases. Urban expansion into natural habitats, deforestation, agricultural development, and increased outdoor recreation create additional opportunities for interactions among ticks, wildlife, domestic animals, and people. At the same time, globalization and increased movement of animals and humans facilitate the introduction of vectors and pathogens into previously unaffected areas, contributing to the emergence and re-emergence of tick-borne infections worldwide (Gratz, 1999; Gubler, 2009; Chala & Hamde, 2021).

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Scientific understanding of tick-borne diseases has also evolved beyond focusing solely on individual pathogens. Modern research increasingly examines the broader ecological systems in which ticks exist, including host diversity, habitat characteristics, microbial communities within ticks, and environmental drivers that influence pathogen transmission. These multidisciplinary approaches reflect the growing recognition that predicting disease emergence requires understanding interactions among vectors, hosts, pathogens, and ecosystems rather than studying each component independently.

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For veterinary medicine, continued surveillance remains one of the most valuable tools for identifying changing patterns of tick activity and pathogen distribution. Surveillance programs help detect newly established tick populations, monitor shifts in disease prevalence, and identify emerging pathogens before widespread transmission occurs. Increasingly, these programs combine field observations with molecular diagnostics, geographic information systems, climate modeling, and epidemiological analyses to provide a more comprehensive understanding of disease risk. Advances in predictive modeling and artificial intelligence are also being explored to strengthen surveillance and improve early detection of emerging vector-borne threats (Hiscox et al., 2025).

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Tick-borne diseases therefore represent more than a collection of individual infections. They demonstrate how environmental change, wildlife ecology, climate, human activities, and pathogen evolution interact to shape disease emergence across animal and human populations. These relationships naturally lead to the next topic in this pillar—Vector Ecology and Surveillance—which explores how scientists study vector populations, monitor disease risk, and support evidence-based public health decision-making.

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Explore the companion guide to Vector Ecology and Surveillance.

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Vector Ecology and Surveillance

 

Vector-borne diseases cannot be fully understood by studying pathogens alone. Their emergence, persistence, and geographic spread are shaped by a dynamic interaction among vectors, hosts, pathogens, and the environment. Vector ecology examines these interactions by exploring how biological and environmental factors influence vector populations, while vector surveillance systematically monitors vectors and the diseases they transmit to better understand changing patterns of disease risk. Together, these complementary fields provide the scientific foundation for predicting, detecting, and responding to vector-borne diseases in both animals and humans.

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Vector ecology focuses on the biology and behavior of disease-transmitting arthropods, including mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, sand flies, lice, and other blood-feeding species. Each vector has unique ecological requirements that influence where it survives, how it reproduces, which hosts it feeds upon, and which pathogens it can transmit. Consequently, disease transmission depends not only on the presence of a pathogen but also on the ecological conditions that allow competent vectors and susceptible hosts to coexist.

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Environmental conditions are among the strongest drivers of vector ecology. Temperature influences vector development, reproduction, feeding frequency, survival, and, for many pathogens, the rate of replication within the vector. Rainfall affects breeding habitats for many mosquito species, while humidity influences the survival of both mosquitoes and ticks. However, researchers consistently emphasize that these relationships are complex rather than predictable. The same environmental change may increase disease risk in one region while decreasing it in another, depending on local ecology, vector species, host availability, and habitat characteristics (De Souza & Weaver, 2024).

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Climate change has therefore become a major focus of vector ecology research, not because it acts alone, but because it interacts with numerous ecological and social factors. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, changing seasons, and more frequent extreme weather events can modify the geographic range and seasonal activity of vectors. At the same time, land-use change, urban expansion, deforestation, irrigation projects, and agricultural development frequently create new habitats that support vector populations. Together, these drivers contribute to the emergence, re-emergence, and redistribution of vector-borne diseases across the globe (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020; Gratz, 1999).

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Host ecology is equally important. Wildlife species frequently serve as natural reservoirs for pathogens, maintaining transmission cycles that involve vectors long before domestic animals or humans become infected. Companion animals and livestock may act as incidental hosts, sentinels, or, in some situations, contribute to pathogen maintenance. Understanding these ecological relationships helps explain why disease occurrence often varies between neighboring regions despite similar climatic conditions. It also reinforces the One Health concept by demonstrating that human, animal, and environmental health cannot be separated when studying vector-borne diseases.

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Modern vector ecology also extends beyond the vector itself. Broadening this ecological lens, research shows that blood-feeding vectors affect not only animal and human hosts, but also agricultural ecosystems through the transmission of bacterial plant pathogens that disrupt food security (Huang et al., 2020). Furthermore, advances in microbiology have revealed that vectors possess their own complex microbial communities, collectively known as the vector microbiota, which can influence vector biology, immunity, and the ability to transmit pathogens. Although this area of research is still developing, scientists increasingly recognize vector microbiomes as an important component of disease ecology and a promising avenue for future investigation (Wang et al., 2023).

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Closely linked to vector ecology is vector surveillance, the continuous collection, analysis, and interpretation of information about vectors, pathogens, hosts, and disease occurrence. Surveillance provides the evidence needed to identify changes in vector populations, detect newly emerging diseases, monitor geographic expansion, and guide public health decision-making. Rather than reacting only after outbreaks occur, surveillance seeks to recognize changing risks before widespread transmission develops.

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Surveillance programs operate at multiple levels. Entomological surveillance monitors vector abundance, distribution, seasonal activity, and species composition. Animal surveillance evaluates infections occurring in wildlife, livestock, or companion animals, which may serve as early indicators of pathogen circulation. Human disease surveillance complements these efforts by tracking reported infections, while laboratory surveillance confirms pathogen identity through molecular and microbiological techniques. Together, these approaches provide a more comprehensive understanding of disease dynamics than any single surveillance system alone.

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Long-term surveillance has demonstrated its value in documenting changing disease patterns worldwide. In the United States, surveillance data collected over more than a decade revealed a substantial increase in reported vector-borne diseases, particularly those transmitted by ticks, highlighting the importance of sustained monitoring for identifying emerging trends (Rosenberg et al., 2018). Similarly, national surveillance in China has documented changing distributions of mosquito-borne, rodent-borne, and tick-borne diseases over a twenty-year period, illustrating how disease risks evolve over time as ecological conditions change (Liu et al., 2025).

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The scientific literature consistently identifies surveillance as one of the most important components of effective vector-borne disease management. Historically, successful reductions in many vector-borne diseases were achieved through integrated entomological programs supported by strong surveillance systems. However, researchers note that declining investment, insecticide resistance, environmental changes, and increasing pathogen diversity have made disease monitoring more challenging in recent decades. Contemporary reviews emphasize that surveillance should remain adaptive, locally relevant, and evidence-based rather than relying on historical assumptions about disease distribution (Gubler, 2009; Wilson et al., 2020).

Technological advances are transforming surveillance capabilities. Geographic information systems (GIS), satellite imagery, remote sensing, climate modeling, molecular diagnostics, and genomic sequencing now allow researchers to monitor vector populations and pathogen movement with greater precision than ever before. Artificial intelligence and machine learning are also being explored as tools for predicting outbreaks by integrating environmental, climatic, entomological, and epidemiological data. While these technologies do not replace traditional surveillance, they offer opportunities to strengthen early warning systems and improve responses to emerging disease threats (Hiscox et al., 2025; Shaw & Catteruccia, 2018).

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Another recurring theme in recent research is the importance of integrated vector management, which combines surveillance with locally adapted vector control strategies, ecological knowledge, community engagement, and public health planning. Rather than depending on a single intervention, integrated approaches recognize that effective disease reduction requires multiple complementary strategies informed by local evidence. Surveillance data provide the foundation for these decisions by identifying where vectors are present, how populations are changing, and which pathogens are circulating (Wilson et al., 2020).

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Ultimately, vector ecology and surveillance explain why vector-borne diseases remain dynamic rather than static. As vectors respond to environmental change, pathogens adapt to new ecological conditions, and human activities reshape landscapes, disease patterns continue to evolve. Maintaining strong surveillance systems while advancing ecological research will remain essential for improving scientific understanding, strengthening One Health collaborations, and supporting evidence-based responses to future vector-borne disease challenges.

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Current Research Themes

 

Research on vector-borne diseases continues to evolve as scientists seek to understand why disease patterns are changing and how surveillance systems can better anticipate future risks. Across the evidence summarized in this pillar, several major themes consistently emerge.

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One of the strongest areas of investigation is the relationship between climate change and vector-borne diseases. Researchers are examining how changing temperatures, rainfall patterns, humidity, and extreme weather events influence vector survival, geographic expansion, seasonal activity, and pathogen transmission. Current evidence indicates that these effects are highly context-dependent, reflecting interactions among climate, ecology, host availability, and land use rather than simple cause-and-effect relationships (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020).

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Another major research priority is the development of stronger surveillance systems. Scientists are integrating field observations with molecular diagnostics, geographic information systems, remote sensing, and real-time epidemiological data to improve the detection of emerging diseases. These multidisciplinary surveillance approaches support earlier recognition of geographic expansion and changing transmission patterns (Hiscox et al., 2025; Rosenberg et al., 2018).

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Researchers are also exploring artificial intelligence and predictive modeling as tools for forecasting disease outbreaks. By combining environmental, climatic, ecological, and epidemiological data, AI-assisted models may help identify areas at increased risk before outbreaks occur. Although these technologies continue to develop, they represent an increasingly important component of modern disease surveillance.

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Another recurring theme is the challenge of insecticide resistance and sustainable vector control. Historical control programs substantially reduced many vector-borne diseases, but contemporary research emphasizes that future success depends on adaptive, locally tailored, evidence-based strategies rather than reliance on a limited number of chemical interventions. Integrated approaches that combine surveillance, ecological understanding, and multiple complementary control methods are increasingly viewed as the most sustainable path forward (Wilson et al., 2020; Shaw & Catteruccia, 2018).

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Finally, the scientific literature consistently reinforces the importance of the One Health framework. Increasing recognition of the interconnected roles of wildlife, companion animals, livestock, humans, vectors, and ecosystems has encouraged greater collaboration among veterinary medicine, human medicine, entomology, ecology, environmental science, and public health. As emerging and re-emerging vector-borne diseases continue to cross species and geographic boundaries, interdisciplinary research is expected to remain central to improving disease surveillance and understanding global disease dynamics.

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Frequently Asked Questions

 

What are vector-borne diseases?

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Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted by living organisms known as vectors, most commonly blood-feeding arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, sand flies, and lice. These vectors carry pathogens—including viruses, bacteria, and parasites—from one host to another during feeding. Because transmission depends on interactions among vectors, pathogens, hosts, and the environment, vector-borne diseases differ from infections spread directly between animals or people (Wilson et al., 2020).

 

Why are vector-borne diseases important in veterinary medicine?

 

Vector-borne diseases affect companion animals, livestock, wildlife, and humans, making them a major concern for veterinary medicine and public health. Many pathogens circulate naturally among wildlife before reaching domestic animals or people, highlighting the interconnected nature of animal, human, and environmental health. Veterinary surveillance therefore contributes valuable information to broader One Health efforts.

 

Which animals can be affected by vector-borne diseases?

 

A wide variety of animals can be affected, including dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, wildlife, birds, reptiles, and other species. The specific diseases present vary depending on the vectors, pathogens, and environmental conditions found in a particular region.

 

What are the most common vectors?

 

Although many arthropods can transmit disease, the most important vectors worldwide include:

• Mosquitoes

• Ticks

• Fleas

• Sand flies

• Lice

• Other blood-feeding arthropods

Each vector species differs in its biology, preferred hosts, habitat, and ability to transmit specific pathogens.

 

How does climate influence vector-borne diseases?

 

Climate affects vector survival, reproduction, seasonal activity, and geographic distribution. Temperature, rainfall, and humidity all influence disease transmission, although these effects vary among ecosystems and vector species. Current research indicates that climate interacts with land use, wildlife ecology, human activities, and socioeconomic factors rather than acting as the sole driver of disease emergence (De Souza & Weaver, 2024; Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020).

 

What is vector surveillance?

 

Vector surveillance is the systematic collection and analysis of information about vectors, pathogens, hosts, and disease occurrence. Surveillance helps researchers detect emerging diseases, monitor changes in vector distribution, identify geographic expansion, and improve understanding of disease trends over time (Rosenberg et al., 2018).

 

Why is the One Health approach important for vector-borne diseases?

 

Many vector-borne pathogens circulate among wildlife, domestic animals, livestock, and humans while being influenced by environmental conditions. Because these diseases cross species boundaries and depend on ecological interactions, effective research and surveillance require collaboration among veterinary medicine, human medicine, public health, ecology, entomology, and environmental science.

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Explore Related Topics

 

Continue exploring the One Health & Public Health Overview knowledge system:

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• One Health & Public Health Overview

• Mosquito-Borne Diseases

• Tick-Borne Diseases

• Vector Ecology and Surveillance