Cattle: Description, Types, Breeds, and Zoonoses

Cattle, domesticated bovine farm animals, are widely raised for meat, milk, hides, and draft purposes.

In this article, we will explore the following:

• What is a Cattle?

• Types of Cattle

• Some Zoonotic Diseases of Cattle

• Breeds of Cattle

The domestication of cattle, dating back possibly 10,000 years, has led to their prominence in agriculture. They provide essential resources such as meat, dairy products, and leather. 

Initially serving triple purposes—meat, milk, and labor—cattle were gradually bred for specific purposes as their draft role diminished with the use of horses and the advent of machinery. 

Modern domestic cattle are believed to have descended from the aurochs, with the last known aurochs killed in 1627 in Poland. 

“Modern domestic cattle are believed to have descended from the extinct wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, with localized gene flow from aurochs into the ancestors of modern British and Irish cattle,” according to the 2015 study by Park, S., Magee, D., McGettigan, P., Teasdale, M., Edwards, C., Lohan, A., Murphy, A., Braud, M., Donoghue, M., Liu, Y., Chamberlain, A., Rue-Albrecht, K., Schroeder, S., Spillane, C., Tai, S., Bradley, D., Sonstegard, T., Loftus, B., & MacHugh, D.

They are classified into Bos taurus (European breeds like Shorthorn and Jersey) and Bos indicus (Zebu breeds like Brahman), with some being hybrids such as Santa Gertrudis. Breeds, as recognized today, are of relatively recent origin, evolving to meet the demands of agricultural efficiency and specialization.

What is a Cattle?

Scientifically known as Bos taurus, Cattle are large, domesticated bovid ungulates that belong to the subfamily Bovinae and are the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are referred to as cows, while mature males are called bulls. Young females are known as heifers, and young males are termed oxen or bullocks, with castrated males being called steers.

As ruminants, cattle are herbivores with a specialized four-compartment stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum) that enables efficient digestion of fibrous plant material. 

There are more than 200 known breeds of cattle including European breeds like the Shorthorn and Jersey (Bos taurus), Zebu breeds such as the Brahman (Bos indicus), and hybrids like the Santa Gertrudis. 

Types of Cattle

Cattle breeds are generally categorized based on their primary use: dairy, beef, or dual-purpose (both milk and meat production).

Dairy Cattle Breeds

Dairy cattle are specifically bred and cared for to produce large quantities of milk. These cows are known for their high milk yield. The prominent breeds are listed below. 

• Holstein-Friesian: Holsteins are the most recognizable dairy breed due to their distinctive black and white markings. They are known for their high milk production, making them the leading breed in the dairy industry.

  • Origin: The Netherlands

  • Average Milk Yield: 23,000 pounds (10,433 kg) per year

  • Average Height: 58 inches (147 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,500 pounds (680 kg)

• Jersey: Jerseys produce milk with a higher butterfat content (around 5.4%), making it ideal for cheese and butter production. They are also known for their smaller size and adaptability to various climates.

  • Origin: Isle of Jersey, United Kingdom

  • Average Milk Yield: 13,000 pounds (5,897 kg) per year

  • Average Height: 48 inches (122 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight:Weight: 900 pounds (408 kg)

• Guernsey: Guernsey milk is known for its rich golden color due to high levels of beta-carotene. They are also efficient producers, requiring less feed per pound of milk produced.

  • Origin: Isle of Guernsey, United Kingdom

  • Average Milk Yield: 15,000 pounds (6,804 kg) per year

  • Average Height: 54 inches (137 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,100 pounds (499 kg)

• Ayrshire: Ayrshires are known for their hardiness and ability to produce high-quality milk under less-than-ideal conditions. They have a distinctive red and white coat.

  • Origin: Ayrshire, Scotland

  • Average Milk Yield: 17,000 pounds (7,711 kg) per year

  • Average Height: 53 inches (135 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200 pounds (544 kg)

• Brown Swiss: Brown Swiss cattle are known for their docile temperament and strong legs and feet, making them excellent foragers. They are also known for longevity and milk with a high protein-to-fat ratio, making them ideal for cheese production. They are also noted for their distinctive brown coat and large size.

  • Origin: Switzerland

  • Average Milk Yield: 22,000 pounds (9,979 kg) per year

  • Average Height: 55 inches (140 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,400 pounds (635 kg)

Holsteins, in particular, are famous for their exceptional milking performance, producing the highest volume of milk among dairy breeds. 

Effective dairy cattle management involves providing balanced nutrition, regular veterinary care, appropriate housing, and efficient milking practices to maximize productivity and ensure animal welfare. 

“The highest milk yield of Holstein-Friesian cows was 1.3kg/cow per day higher when offered a high concentrate treatment (7.0± 0.3kg/cow per day),” according to the 2015 study by Lawrence, D., O'Donovan, M., Boland, T., Lewis, E., & Kennedy, E.

Innovations in dairy cattle management focus on improving productivity and environmental sustainability, such as precision farming technologies, enhanced feed formulations, and waste management systems. 

Common diseases affecting dairy cattle include mastitis, bovine respiratory disease, and lameness, which require careful health management programs to prevent outbreaks and maintain herd health.

Beef Cattle Breeds

Beef cattle are raised primarily for meat production, characterized by their robust build, muscular physique, and efficient feed conversion. 

Prominent beef cattle breeds are listed below. Each is known for its superior meat quality and adaptability to various environmental conditions.

• Angus: Angus cattle are naturally polled (without horns) and are known for their high-quality beef with excellent marbling. They have a sleek, black or red coat.

  • Origin: Scotland

  • Average Height: 48 inches (122 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,400 pounds (545–635 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Angus beef is prized for its tenderness, juiciness, and flavor, with high marbling contributing to a rich taste.

  • Average Daily Gain: 2.5–3.5 pounds (1.1–1.6 kg) per day

  • Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): Approximately 6:1, meaning it takes 6 pounds of feed to produce 1 pound of beef.

• Hereford: Herefords are distinguished by their white face and red coat. They are known for their adaptability, hardiness, and efficiency in beef production.

  • Origin: England

  • Average Height: 50 inches (127 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,800 pounds (545–818 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Hereford beef is known for its flavor, tenderness, and fine texture, with good marbling.

  • Average Daily Gain: 2.7–3.5 pounds (1.2–1.6 kg) per day

  • Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): Approximately 6:1.

• Charolais: Charolais cattle are white or cream-colored and are known for their muscular build and high yield of lean meat.

  • Origin: France

  • Average Height: 55 inches (140 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,600–2,200 pounds (727–998 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Charolais beef is lean with a fine grain and is known for its high yield and tenderness.

  • Average Daily Gain: 3.0–4.0 pounds (1.4–1.8 kg) per day

  • Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): Approximately 5.5:1.

• Brahman: Brahman cattle are easily recognizable by their large hump over the shoulders, droopy ears, and loose skin. They are well-adapted to hot climates and are known for their disease resistance.

  • Origin: India

  • Average Height: 54 inches (137 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,800 pounds (545–818 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Brahman beef is generally lean with a moderate flavor and is known for its durability and adaptability rather than high marbling.

  • Average Daily Gain: 2.5–3.5 pounds (1.1–1.6 kg) per day

  • Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): Approximately 6:1.

• Simmental: Simmental cattle are large and colors are red, white, or a combination of both. They are known for their dual-purpose ability but excel in beef production.

  • Origin: Switzerland

  • Average Height: 56 inches (142 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,500–2,000 pounds (680–907 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Simmental beef is known for its marbling, tenderness, and flavor.

  • Average Daily Gain: 3.0–4.0 pounds (1.4–1.8 kg) per day

  • Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): Approximately 5.5:1.

Effective beef cattle management involves proper nutrition, pasture management, rotational grazing, and regular health monitoring to ensure optimal growth and meat quality. 

“Feeding a low-vitamin A diet during finishing increased marbling in Angus steers but not in Simmental steers, potentially improving meat quality without negatively impacting gain-to-feed or yield grade,” according to the 2020 study by Knutson, E., Menezes, A., Sun, X., Fontoura, A., Liu, J., Bauer, M., Maddock-Carlin, K., Swanson, K., & Ward, A.

While beef cattle are not typically noted for their milking performance, some breeds like the Simmental are dual-purpose, providing both milk and meat. 

Common diseases affecting beef cattle include respiratory diseases, bloat, foot rot, and parasitic infestations, necessitating comprehensive health management programs to prevent outbreaks and maintain herd health.

Innovations in beef cattle management focus on enhancing meat quality, feed efficiency, and environmental sustainability through genetic selection, precision farming, and sustainable grazing practices.

Dual-Purpose Breeds

Dual-purpose cattle are breeds that are raised for both milk and meat production. They combine the traits of dairy and beef cattle. The prominent dual-purpose breeds are listed below.

• Simmental: Simmentals are large, muscular cattle with a distinctive white face and a range of coat colors from gold to red. They are known for their high productivity in both milk and meat.

  • Origin: Switzerland

  • Average Height: 56 inches (142 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,500–2,000 pounds (680–907 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Simmental beef is prized for its tenderness, flavor, and marbling.

  • Milk Yield: Approximately 7,000–10,000 pounds (3,175–4,536 kg) per year, with good milk quality.

• Shorthorn: Shorthorns come in three color varieties: red, white, and roan. They are known for their adaptability, hardiness, and balanced performance in both milk and meat production.

  • Origin: England

  • Average Height: 50–54 inches (127–137 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,800 pounds (545–818 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Shorthorn beef is tender, flavorful, and well-marbled.

  • Milk Yield: Approximately 8,000–10,000 pounds (3,629–4,536 kg) per year.

• Red Poll: Red Polls are polled (without horns) and have a distinctive red coat. They are known for their efficient production of both meat and milk.

  • Origin: England

  • Average Height: 50–55 inches (127–140 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,600 pounds (545–726 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Red Poll beef is known for its good quality, being tender and flavorful with moderate marbling.

  • Milk Yield: Approximately 6,000–8,000 pounds (2,722–3,629 kg) per year.

• Devon: Devons are recognized for their reddish-brown coat and robust build. They are known for their excellent ability to produce high-quality meat and milk.

  • Origin: England

  • Average Height: 48–52 inches (122–132 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 1,200–1,600 pounds (545–726 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Devon beef is renowned for its fine texture and flavor, with good marbling.

  • Milk Yield: Approximately 6,000–8,000 pounds (2,722–3,629 kg) per year.

• Dexter: Dexter cattle are small, hardy, and known for their ability to thrive in various environments. They are compact and have a dual-purpose ability, suitable for both milk and meat production.

  • Origin: Ireland

  • Average Height: 42–44 inches (107–112 cm) at the shoulder

  • Average Weight: 600–1,000 pounds (272–454 kg)

  • Meat Quality: Dexter beef is flavorful and tender, with good marbling despite the breed’s smaller size.

  • Milk Yield: 3,000–5,000 pounds (1,361–2,268 kg) per year

Effective management includes providing balanced nutrition, optimal pasture management, and regular veterinary care. The Simmental breed is noted for its impressive milking performance and high-quality beef. 

Mastitis, respiratory infections, and parasitic diseases are common health concerns requiring diligent monitoring and preventative measures. 

Innovations focus on genetic selection, sustainable farming practices, and improved feeding strategies to enhance productivity and sustainability in both dairy and meat production.

“Simmental cattle have high milk productivity, with an average milk yield of 4774 kg and stable fat and protein content in milk,” according to the 2020 study by Karymsakov, T., & Baimukanov, D.

Some Zoonotic Diseases of Cattle

Zoonotic diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Some 

zoonotic diseases associated with cattle are listed below. 

• Brucellosis

  • Cause: Bacterium Brucella abortus

  • Transmission: Direct contact, unpasteurized milk, inhalation

  • Symptoms in Humans: Fever, chills, muscle pain

  • Symptoms in Animals: Abortion, reduced milk production

  • Prevention: Protective clothing, pasteurization, vaccination

  • Treatment: Antibiotics

• Tuberculosis (TB)

  • Cause: Bacterium Mycobacterium bovis

  • Transmission: Inhalation, unpasteurized milk

  • Symptoms in Humans: Cough, fever, weight loss

  • Symptoms in Animals: Chronic cough, weight loss

  • Prevention: Testing, culling, pasteurization

  • Treatment: Long-term antibiotics

• 
  

“The first confirmed interspecific transmission of Mycobacterium bovis between a farmer and his cattle has been confirmed in Poland, supporting the increasing concern regarding zoonotic TB,” according to the 2022 study by Krajewska-Wędzina, M., Radulski, Ł., Waters, W., Didkowska, A., Zabost, A., AUGUSTYNOWICZ-KOPEĆ, E., Brzezińska, S., & Weiner, M.

• Salmonellosis

  • Cause: Bacterium Salmonella spp.

  • Transmission: Contaminated food/water, direct contact

  • Symptoms in Humans: Diarrhea, abdominal cramps

  • Symptoms in Animals: Diarrhea, fever

  • Prevention: Sanitation, pasteurization

  • Treatment: Fluid replacement, antibiotics

• Campylobacteriosis

  • Cause: Bacterium Campylobacter jejuni

  • Transmission: Undercooked poultry, unpasteurized milk

  • Symptoms in Humans: Diarrhea, abdominal pain

  • Symptoms in Animals: Diarrhea

  • Prevention: Proper cooking, hygiene

  • Treatment: Often self-resolving, antibiotics for severe cases

• Cryptosporidiosis

  • Cause: Protozoan Cryptosporidium spp.

  • Transmission: Contaminated food/water, direct contact

  • Symptoms in Humans: Watery diarrhea, nausea

  • Symptoms in Animals: Diarrhea, dehydration

  • Prevention: Sanitation, clean water

  • Treatment: Supportive care, nitazoxanide

• Leptospirosis

  • Cause: Bacterium Leptospira spp.

  • Transmission: Contaminated water/soil, direct contact

  • Symptoms in Humans: Fever, headache, jaundice

  • Symptoms in Animals: Fever, lethargy, jaundice

  • Prevention: Protective clothing, sanitation, vaccination

  • Treatment: Antibiotics

• Ringworm (Dermatophytosis)

  • Cause: Fungi (e.g., Trichophyton verrucosum)

  • Transmission: Direct contact, contaminated surfaces

  • Symptoms in Humans: Itchy, red patches

  • Symptoms in Animals: Hairless, itchy patches

  • Prevention: Hygiene, disinfection

  • Treatment: Antifungal medications

• Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

  • Cause: Virus (Aphthovirus)

  • Transmission: Contaminated equipment, direct contact

  • Symptoms in Humans: Rare; flu-like symptoms

  • Symptoms in Animals: Blisters, sores, lameness

  • Prevention: Vaccination, biosecurity

  • Treatment: No specific treatment; supportive care

• Mad Cow Disease (BSE)

  • Cause: Prions

  • Transmission: Contaminated beef products

  • Symptoms in Humans: Psychiatric, neurological symptoms

  • Symptoms in Animals: Behavioral changes, lack of coordination

  • Prevention: Feed controls, surveillance

  • Treatment: None; supportive care

• Anthrax

  • Cause: Bacterium Bacillus anthracis

  • Transmission: Direct contact, inhalation, consumption

  • Symptoms in Humans: Ulcers, respiratory distress, severe abdominal pain

  • Symptoms in Animals: Sudden death, bleeding

  • Prevention: Vaccination, proper carcass disposal

  • Treatment: Antibiotics

Breeds of Cattle

There are 271 breeds of cattle according to OSU. Table 1 shows the list of these breeds.

Table 1. Breeds of Cattle

Africander Cattle Akaushi Cattle Alberes Cattle Alentejana Cattle Allmogekor Cattle American Breed Cattle American Braford Cattle American White Park Cattle Amerifax Cattle Amrit Mahal Cattle Anatolian Black Cattle Andalusian Black Cattle Andalusian Grey Cattle Angeln Cattle Angus Cattle Ankole Cattle Ankole-Watusi Cattle Argentine Criollo Cattle Asturian Mountain Cattle Asturian Valley Cattle Aubrac Cattle Aulie-Ata Cattle Australian Braford Cattle Australian Friesian Sahiwal Cattle Australian Lowline Cattle Australian Milking Zebu Cattle Ayrshire Cattle Azaouak Cattle Bachaur Cattle Baladi Cattle Baltata Romaneasca Cattle Barka Cattle Barzona Cattle Bazadais Cattle Béarnais Cattle Beefalo Cattle Beefmaker Cattle Beefmaster Cattle Belarus Red Cattle Belgian Blue Cattle Belgian Red Cattle Belmont Adaptaur Cattle Belmont Red Cattle Belted Galloway Cattle Bengali Cattle Berrendas Cattle Bhagnari Cattle Black Hereford Cattle Blacksided Trondheim and Norland Cattle Blanca Cacereña/White Cáceres Cattle Blanco Orejinegro Cattle Blonde d'Aquitaine Cattle Bonsmara Cattle Boran Cattle Bordelais Cattle Brahman Cattle Brahmousin Cattle Brangus Cattle Braunvieh Cattle British White Cattle Brown Swiss Cattle Busa Cattle Cachena Cattle Canadian Highland Cattle Canadienne Cattle Canary Island Cattle Canchim Cattle Carinthian Blond Cattle Caucasian Cattle Channi Cattle Charbray Cattle Charolais Cattle Chianina Cattle Chinampo Cattle Chinese Black-and-White Cattle Chinese Mongolian Cattle Chinese Xinjiang Brown Cattle Cholistani Cattle Corriente Cattle Costeño con Cuernos Cattle Dajal Cattle Damascus Cattle Damietta Cattle Dangi Cattle Danish Jersey Cattle Danish Red Cattle Deoni Cattle Devon Cattle Dexter Cattle Dhanni Cattle Djali Cattle Dølafe Cattle Droughtmaster Cattle Dulong Cattle Dutch Belted (Lakenvelder) Cattle Dutch Friesian Cattle East Anatolian Red Cattle Enderby Island Cattle English Longhorn Cattle Estonian Red Cattle Evolène Cattle Fighting Cattle Finnish Cattle Fjall Cattle Florida Cracker Cattle Galician Blond Cattle Galloway Cattle Gaolao Cattle Gascon Cattle Gelbray Cattle Gelbvieh Cattle German Angus Moiled Cattle German Red Pied Cattle Gir Cattle Glan Cattle Gloucester Cattle Gobra Cattle Greek Shorthorn Cattle Greek Steppe Cattle Groningen Cattle Guernsey Cattle Guzerat Cattle Hallikar Cattle Hariana Cattle Harton Cattle Hays Converter Cattle Hereford Cattle Herens Cattle Highland Cattle Hinterwald Cattle Holando-Argentino Cattle Holstein Cattle Horro Cattle Hungarian Grey Cattle Icelandic Cattle

Illawarra Cattle Indo-Brazilian Cattle Irish Moiled Cattle Israeli Holstein Cattle Israeli Red Cattle Istoben Cattle Jamaica Black Cattle Jamaica Hope Cattle Jamaica Red Cattle Jaulan Cattle - Jaulan Jaulan Cattle - Sharabi Jersey Cattle Kangayam Cattle Kankrej Cattle Karan Fries Cattle Karan Swiss Cattle Kazakh Cattle Kenwariya Cattle Kerry Cattle Kherigarh Cattle Khillari Cattle Kholmogory Cattle Kilis Cattle Krishna Valley Cattle Kurdi Black Cattle Kuri Cattle Latvian Brown (Buraya latviiskaya) Cattle Limousin Cattle Limpurger Cattle Lincoln Red Cattle Lithuanian Red Cattle Lohani Cattle Lourdais Cattle Luing Cattle Madagascar Zebu Cattle Maine-Anjou Cattle Malvi Cattle Mandalong Cattle Marchigiana Cattle Maremmana Cattle Masai Cattle Mashona Cattle Maure Cattle Mazandarani Cattle Meuse-Rhine-Yssel Cattle Mewati Cattle Milking Devon Cattle Milking Shorthorn Cattle Miniature Zebu Cattle Mirandesa Cattle Modicana Cattle Montbéliard Cattle Morucha Cattle Murboden Cattle Murray Grey Cattle Muturu - West African Dwarf Shorthorn Cattle N'dama Cattle Nagori Cattle Nanyang Cattle Nelore Cattle Nguni Cattle Nimari Cattle Normande Cattle Norwegian Red Cattle Ongole Cattle Orma Boran Cattle Oropa Cattle Ovambo Cattle Parthenais Cattle Philippine Native Cattle Piedmontese Cattle Pinzgauer Cattle Polish Red Cattle Polled Hereford Cattle Ponwar Cattle Qinchuan Cattle Rath Cattle Rathi Cattle Rätien Gray Cattle Red Angus Cattle Red Brangus Cattle Red Fulani or Mbororo Cattle Red Pied Friesian Cattle Red Poll Cattle Red Polled Østland Cattle Red Sindhi Cattle Red Steppe Cattle Reggiana Cattle Retinta Cattle Rojhan Cattle Romagnola Cattle Romosinuano Cattle Russian Black Pied Cattle RX3 Cattle Sahiwal Cattle Salers Cattle Salorn Cattle San Martinero Cattle Sanhe Cattle Santa Cruz Cattle Santa Gertrudis Cattle Sarabi Cattle Senepol Cattle Shetland Cattle Shorthorn Cattle Siboney Cattle Simbrah Cattle Simmental Cattle Siri Cattle Slovenian Cika Cattle South Devon Cattle Sudanese Fulani Cattle Sussex Cattle Swedish Friesian Cattle Swedish Red Polled Cattle Swedish Red-and-White Cattle Tarentaise Cattle Telemark Cattle Texas Longhorn Cattle Texon Cattle Tharparkar Cattle Tswana Cattle Tuli Cattle Turkish Grey Steppe Cattle Ukrainian Beef Cattle Ukrainian Grey Cattle Ukrainian Whitehead Cattle Umblachery Cattle Ural Black Pied Cattle Vestland Fjord Cattle Vestland Red Polled Cattle Vosges Cattle Wagyu Cattle Welsh Black Cattle White Park Cattle Yanbian Cattle

References:

• Averdunk, G., & Krogmeier, D., 2011. Animals that Produce Dairy Foods | Minor and Dual-Purpose Bos taurus Breeds. 

• Britannica Encyclopedia. Dairy Cattle Breeds

• Britannica Encyclopedia. Beef Cattle Breeds. 

• Cattle Daily. Best Dual Purpose Cattle Breeds

• Dinsmore, RP., 2021. The Health Management Program in Dairy Cattle

• Galina, CS & Geffroy, M., 2023. Dual-Purpose Cattle Raised in Tropical Conditions: What Are Their Shortcomings in Sound Productive and Reproductive Function? 

• Gheorghe-Irimia, RA., et al., 2023. Innovations in Dairy Cattle Management: Enhancing Productivity and Environmental Sustainability.

• Karymsakov, T., & Baimukanov, D., 2020. Milk productivity of cows of the active part of the Simmental breed population.

• Knutson, E., et al. 2020. Effect of feeding a low-vitamin A diet on carcass and production characteristics of steers with a high or low propensity for marbling

• Krajewska-Wędzina, M., et al., 2022. Mycobacterium bovis Transmission between Cattle and a Farmer in Central Poland.

• Lawrence, D., et al. 2014. The effect of concentrate feeding amount and feeding strategy on milk production, dry matter intake, and energy partitioning of autumn-calving Holstein-Friesian cows. 

• Midwest Dairy. Types of Dairy Cows 

• Oklahoma State University. Breeds of Cattle. 

• Park, S., et al., 2015. Genome sequencing of the extinct Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates the phylogeography and evolution of cattle.

• Penn State Extension. Beef Cattle Production and Management

• Penn State Extension. Common Diseases of Grazing Beef Cattle

• Spitzer, JC., 1998. Diseases Common in Beef Cattle. Clemson University. 

• The Cattle Site. Revival of dual purpose dairy cattle breeds?

• USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture. What are some common conditions and terms related to beef diseases?